Chemicals/Leads

A fresh surface of high purity lead on the left is silvery in appearance.

P processes
"Lead-202 would be produced in the oxygen zone as a p-process nuclide."

"The firm estimate of the capture rate for the first time base on experimental value allowed reaching two important conclusions with respect to the s-process nucleosynthesis in this mass region: i) the classical model, based on the phenomenological study of the s-process fails to produce consistent result of the branching at and, ii) the p-process contribution to the production of  can amount up 30 % of the solar-system observed abundance [5]."

R processes
In the r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay.


 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)
 * (n,β-)

S processes
All four stable lead isotopes, , , and are produced by S-process nucleosynthesis on thallium and on  and.

Decay chains
"Three radioactive series are known in nature, the thorium series (mass number 4n where n is an integer), the uranium series (4n + 2) and the actinium series (4n + 3)."

The Neptunian Series is the 4n + 1 series.

Neptunium series
The Neptunium Series has been composed.

Structures
"Diamond cubic structures with lattice parameters around the lattice parameter of silicon exists both in thin lead and tin films, and in massive lead and tin, freshly solidified in vacuum of ≈5 x 10-6 Torr. Experimental evidence for almost identical structures of at least three oxide types is presented, demonstrating that lead and tin behave like silicon not only in the initial stages of crystallization, but also in the initial stages of oxidation."

Diamond cubic structure is in the Fd$1/2$m space group no. 227, which is the face-centered cubic Bravais lattice with two atoms on each face, one at (0,$1/2$,$1/4$) and the other at ($1/4$,$1/4$,$\overline{3}$) instead of one.

Lead alloys
Lead alloys, or lead-based alloys, have the highest atomic percent lead.

Lithiums
"Ab initio total energy calculations are used to investigate the structural trends of equiatomic solid APb alloys (A=Li, Na, K). [...] Charged Pb4 tetrahedral units dominate the structural and electronic properties and these units are remarkably robust and insensitive to their alkali environment. The stability of the Pb4 units diminishes as we progress from K to Li and leads to their absence in the LiPb alloy in accordance with experiment."

Sodiums
"The technical product was cookled with caustic soda, dried over barium oxide, and subsequently distilled fractionally from sodium-lead alloy (NaPb)."

Calciums
"Two volts, three plates lead-acid cells with lead-calcium alloys were studied. [To] improve the cycle life of lead-calcium alloy cells, additives like antimony sulphate to the positive active material and phosphoric acid to the electrolyte were added separately and in combination."

Coppers
Molybdochalkos is an alloy that contains 90% lead 10% copper.

"For instance, once your priest Neilos provoked laughter, when he roasted molybdochalkos in a baking-oven: so that, if one adds some 'bread' (ie slabs of molybdochalkos / magnēsia),43 he ends up kindling (the fire) with kōbathia (arsenic ores) all day long.44"

Silvers
"Pure lead, lead-silver and antimonial lead grids were also included for the purpose of comparison."

Cadmiums
"Immediately after dissection, the body of the scapula was embedded in an open-top steel box using molten metal (lead-cadmium alloy), allowing the upper part of the spine, glenoid, and coracoid to protrude [...]."

Indiums
"Pb–In nanosized alloy particles [can be] embedded in an aluminum matrix. [At] small sizes, the Pb–In alloys particles are single-phase solid solution having fcc structure at the composition range covering both Pb and In rich regions."

Tins
Babbitt alloys designated "heavy pressure" - 72.5–76.5 % Pb, "royal" - 77.9–81.2 % Pb, "grade 13" - 82.5–85 % Pb and "durite" - 79.9–83.9 % Pb with Sn, Cu, Sb, and As.

Lead tin telluride, Pb1−xSnxTe, is a IV-VI narrow band gap semiconductor. The band gap of Pb1−xSnxTe is tuned by varying the composition (x). SnTe can be alloyed with Pb (or PbTe with Sn) in order to tune the band gap from 0.29 eV (PbTe) to 0.18 eV (SnTe). The band gap in Pb1−xSnxTe does not change linearly between the two extremes. As the composition (x) of Sn is increased, the band gap decreases, approaches zero in the concentration regime (0.32-0.65 corresponding to temperature 4-300 K respectively) and further increases towards bulk band gap of SnTe.

Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal workpieces. Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solders, also called soft solders, are commercially available with tin concentrations between 5% and 70% by weight. The greater the tin concentration, the greater the solder’s tensile and shear strengths. Historically, lead has been widely believed to mitigate the formation of tin whiskers, though the precise mechanism for this is unknown. Today, many techniques are used to mitigate the problem, including changes to the annealing process (heating and cooling), addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of conformal coatings. Alloys commonly used for electrical soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at 188 °C,

Lead-tin solders readily dissolve gold plating and form brittle intermetallics. 60/40 Sn-Pb solder oxidizes on the surface, forming a complex 4-layer structure: tin(IV) oxide on the surface, below it a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed lead, followed by a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed tin and lead, and the solder alloy itself underneath.

Pb90Sn10 designated 268/302 275/302 Sn10, UNS L54520, ASTM10B, is used for: balls in ceramic ball grid array (CBGA) components, replaced by Sn95.5Ag3.9Cu0.6, low cost and good bonding properties, rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those, fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, coating and bonding of metals in moderate service temperatures, body solder,, has low thermal EMF, an alternative to Cd70 where parasitic thermocouple voltage has to be avoided.

Pb88Sn12 254/296 is used for fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, coating and bonding of metals for moderate service temperatures, body solder.

Pb85Sn15 227/288 is used for coating tubes and sheets and fabrication of car radiators, body solder.

Pb80Sn20 183/280 Sn20, UNS L54711 is used for coating radiator tubes for joining fins.

Pb80Sb15Sn5 570 °C White Metal Capping is used for locking mineshaft winding ropes into their tapered end sockets or 'capels'.

Pb75Sn25 183/266 is a crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted soldering car engine radiators, machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings, superior body solder.

Pb70Sn30 185/255 183/257 Sn30, UNS L54280, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, good for machine and torch soldering, soldering car engine radiators, machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings, superior body solder.

Pb68Sn32 253 "Plumber solder", for construction plumbing works

Pb68Sn30Sb2 185/243 is Pb68

Sn30Pb50Zn20 177/288 Kapp GalvRepair Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including Aluminum and cast Iron, have been used for cast Iron and galvanized surface repair.

Sn33Pb40Zn28 230/275 Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including Aluminum and cast Iron, have been used for cast Iron and galvanized surface repair.

Pb67Sn33 187–230 PM 33, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, temperature depends on additives.

Pb65Sn35 183/250 Sn35 is used as a cheaper alternative of Sn60Pb40 for wiping and sweating joints.

Pb60Sn40 183/238 183/247 Sn40, UNS L54915, is used for soldering of brass and car radiators, bulk soldering, and where wider melting point range is desired, joining cables, wiping and joining lead pipes, repairs of radiators and electrical systems.

Pb55Sn45 183/227 is used for soldering radiator cores, roof seams, and for decorative joints.

Sn50Pb50 183/216 183–212 Sn50, UNS L55030, is used for "Ordinary solder", soldering of brass, electricity meters, gas meters, formerly also tin cans, general purpose, standard tinning and sheetmetal work, becomes brittle below −150 °C. low cost and good bonding properties, rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those, wiping and assembling plumbing joints for non-potable water.

Sn40Pb42Cd18 145 is used for low melting temperature allows repairing pewter and zinc objects, including die-cast toys.

Antimonies
One Linotype alloy is composed of lead with 12% antimony and 4% tin.

Lead bricks used for radiation shielding are alloyed with 4 % antimony.

"The performance with the additives was equivalent to that of the lead-antimony alloy cells."

Thalliums
There is "a lead-thallium alloy corresponding in composition to PbTl2".

"The adiabatic elastic constants of seven fcc lead-thallium alloy single crystals have been measured by the ultrasonic pulse-echo technique over the composition range 5–72 at.% thallium and over the temperature range 4.2–300°K."

Bismuths
"Liquid lead and the eutectic lead–bismuth alloy (PbBi) are considered both as a spallation target and coolant of an accelerator driven system (ADS) for the transmutation of long-lived actinides from nuclear waste into shorter living isotopes."

There is "an alloy of 65 per cent lead and 35 per cent bismuth."

Intermetallics
"Magnetic susceptibilities of the series of intermetallics represented by the formula RPb3 (R = Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu and Gd) are reported for temperatures ranging from 2.8 to 300°K."

The lead-gold intermetallics: (novodneprite) and  (anyuiite) occur.

Inorganics
Plumbane, PbH4, is a metal hydride and group 14 hydride. Plumbane is not well-characterized or well-known, and it is thermodynamically unstable with respect to the loss of a hydrogen atom. Derivatives of plumbane include lead tetrafluoride, (PbF4), and tetraethyllead, ((CH3CH2)4Pb).

Lead dioxides
Lead(IV) oxide is commonly called lead dioxide, plumbic oxide or anhydrous plumbic acid.

Organoleads
The fundamental properties and ultimate performance limits of organolead trihalide (MA = ; X =  or ) perovskites remain obscured by extensive disorder in polycrystalline MAPbX 3 films.

"Solid state hybrid solar cells with hybrid organolead halide perovskites (CH 3 NH 3 PbBr 3 and CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 ) as light harvesters and p-type polymer poly[N-9-hepta-decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-3,6-bis(thiophen-5-yl)-2,5-dioctyl-2,5-di-hydropyrrolo[3,4-]pyrrole-1,4-dione] (PCBTDPP) as a hole transporting material [occur]. The CH 3 NH 3 PbBr 3 -sensitized hybrid devices display an outstanding open circuit voltage (V oc ) of ∼1.15 V, and the CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 -based cells exhibit a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of ∼5.55% along with high stability. [...] PCBTDPP is superior to the model p-type polymer P3HT as a HTM in these hybrid solar cells to achieve remarkably high V oc and high PCE."

Organolead compounds include tetramethyl lead (TML), tetraethyl lead (TEL), triethyl lead (TREL), dimethyl lead (DML), diethyl lead (DEL), methyl ethyl lead (MEL), tetrabutyl lead (TeBL), and dialkyl lead (DAL).

Native leads
The piece of native lead on the right shows a relatively sharp, and well-formed cuboctahedron of Lead at the top of the specimen, which is associated with elongated crystals on the base and back.

Its source locality is Långban, Filipstad, Värmland, Sweden.

Litharges
Litharge is a secondary mineral which forms from the oxidation of galena ores. Z = 2 chemical formula units per unit cell. It is dimorphous with the orthorhombic form massicot.

Massicots
Massicot is lead (II) oxide mineral with an orthorhombic lattice structure, Z = 4.

Galenas
Galena in the image on the right is the metallic cuboidal crystal atop a matrix. Galena is PbS, 50 atomic % lead and 50 atomic % sulfur. Each cubic unit cell contains four PbS molecules in a face-centered cubic lattice.

Minium
Minium is Pb2+2Pb4+O4 that crystallizes in the Tetragonal, Ditetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm) class: (4/m 2/m 2/m).

Minium is rare and occurs in lead-mineral deposits that have been subjected to severe oxidizing conditions and is associated with cerussite, galena, litharge, massicot, mimetite, native lead, and wulfenite.