Draft:Original research/Charge ontology

The nature or essential characteristics of charge, an entity in or of the universe, may be called charge ontology.

The illustration on the right shows two wires attached to a 12V battery, and depicts the field lines (gray pattern) and the lines of equal potential (yellow). Charge does not flow on the surface of the wires because the field lines are perpendicular to the wires, nor inside the wires because the field is zero there.

Even when a voltage source is not connected to a circuit, it still maintains an electrical potential between its two terminals.

Universals
Def. a "unified fundamental force that combines the aspect of" charge and magnetism at ninety degrees to each other is called electromagnetism.

Def. that which throws, [emits, comes out, extends, spreads, sends or manifests] is called a charge.

Def. a charge which extends is called a negative charge.

Def. a charge which pulls in is called a positive charge.

Def. that which attracts or pulls in, or repels or extends, is called magnetism.

Def. the "shooting forth of anything" is called radiation.

Def. a radiated electromagnetism is called a wave.

Def. an overlapping or superposition is called an interference.

Def. a constructive interference of waves is called a particle.

Electromagnetism exists. It is neither finite nor infinite but uncountable, perhaps it is a universal.

What came before electromagnetism? The concept of coming before (cause and effect) only comes into existence once particles are complex enough to compose the concept. But, it is an approach to understanding not necessarily understanding.

As a characteristic, the magnetic field and the electric field are at 90° to each other.

Interference when it occurs may result in a localized reorientation into a beta particle, for example.

Does the universe have a beginning? The answer is unknown because a beginning may be created by particles just as an end may be created.

Is the universe rational? It is irrational resulting in irrational real numbers such as π. The imaginary number i = (-1)1/2 does not exist in the universe but does exist in hominin mathematics.

Dimensions
An apparent three dimensional space results from magnetic fields and electric fields at 90° to each other. The appearance of Euclidean dimensions occurs only from the point of view of particles within the electromagnetism. No particles, no three or four dimensions of volume, motion, or time.

Motions
The appearance of motion occurs as interferences attract or repell.

What is gravity? A special case of attraction between particles that can be replaced by appropriate equations for electromagnetism including such forms as the strong force and weak force.

The higher the number of particles the stronger is its effect on another set of particles.

What moves through the speed of light? As the universe of electromagnetism is uncountable a method or technique for propelling or motivating an object (an enormous collection of particles appearing ordered) to move across the universe is developable.

Times
Time is a dependent variable of motion. The sequence is electromagnetism, then there are particles such as interference and diffraction, then there is propagation, followed by motion, then time.

Theoretical charge ontology
Def. a property of matter that is responsible for electrical phenomena, existing in a positive or negative form, or a quantity of this carried by a body, is called a charge.

Def. "the quantity of unbalanced positive or negative ions in or on an object; measured in coulombs" is called charge, or electric charge.

Def. the "branch of metaphysics that addresses the nature or essential characteristics of being and of things that exist; the study of being qua being" is called ontology.

Usage notes

"In the field of philosophy there is some variation in how the term ontology is used. Ontology is a much more recent term than metaphysics and takes its root meaning explicitly from the Greek term for being. Ontology can be used loosely as a rough equivalent to metaphysics or more precisely to denote that subset of the domain of metaphysics which is focused rigorously on the study of being as being."

Here's a theoretical definition:

Def. a study that addresses the nature or essential characteristics of a property of matter that is responsible for electrical phenomena, existing in a positive or negative form, or a quantity of this carried by a body and of such things that exist is called charge ontology.

Photons
Def. "a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime" is called a photon.

To make a photon from a beta particle, the spinon reorients the chargon to alternate the magnetic field and the electric field at 90° to each other.

To make a photon from a beta particle, the chargon reorients the spinon to alternate the magnetic field and the electric field at 90° to each other.

When a photon encounters a particle, it may reorient into a spinon and a chargon.

Entangled particles
The "two maximally entangled states:
 * $$|\psi_0^{\pm1}\rangle_{12} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} (|0,\downarrow\rangle_1|0,\uparrow\rangle_2 \pm |0,\uparrow\rangle_1 |0, \downarrow\rangle_2),$$

[differ] only by a relative phase. Note that if we were considering identical particles on the same point, our system would have to be described by these states, for bosons and fermions respectively."

"Entanglement is one of the most fundamental features of quantum mechanics. It is at the heart of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, of Bell’s inequalities, and of the discussions of the nonlocality of quantum mechanics. Thus far, entanglement has been realized either by having the two entangled particles emerge from a common source [1], or by having two particles interact with each other [2]. Yet, an alternative possibility to obtain entanglement is to make use of a projection of the state of two particles onto an entangled state. This projection measurement does not necessarily require a direct interaction between the two particles: When each of the particles is entangled with one other partner particle, an appropriate measurement, for example, a Bell-state measurement, of the partner particles will automatically collapse the state of the remaining two particles into an entangled state. This striking application of the projection postulate is referred to as entanglement swapping [3–5] [...]."

Quantum "entanglement requires the entangled particles neither to come from a common source nor to have interacted in the past."

Quantum "mechanics should allow two objects to affect each other’s behaviour instantly across vast distances".

Exactly "how much coordination nature allows between distant objects [is], in principle, unknowable."

It "is impossible to calculate how much coordination [two objects] could theoretically reach."

"An immediate byproduct of our result is that there is an efficient reduction from the Halting Problem to the problem of deciding whether a two-player nonlocal game has entangled value 1 or at most 1/2. Using a known connection, undecidability of the entangled value implies a negative answer to Tsirelson's problem: we show, by providing an explicit example, that the closure Cqa of the set of quantum tensor product correlations is strictly included in the set Cqc of quantum commuting correlations."

Chargons
Def. a quasiparticle produced as a result of electron spin-charge separation" is called a chargon.

A chargon possesses the charge of an electron without a spin.

A spinon, in turn, possesses the spin of an electron without charge. The suggestion is that an elementary particle such as a positron may consist of at least two parts: spin and charge.

In the figure on the right "the 1D parabola tracks the spin excitation (spinon)."

Def. a "quasiparticle, corresponding to the orbital energy of an electron, which can result from an electron apparently ‘splitting’ under certain conditions" is called an orbiton.

Both an orbiton and a spinon are kinetic or kinematic concepts applied to an electron.

Def. "a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime" is called a photon.

An electron may be thought of as a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative one.

Electrons
The smallest particles are electrons and positrons.

Charge is quantized; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, e, 1.602 176 634 x 10-19 C which is the smallest charge which can exist freely.

The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second. This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948. In modern practice, the phrase "amount of charge" is used instead of "quantity of charge".

The unit faraday is sometimes used in electrochemistry, where faraday of charge is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of electrons, i.e. 96485.33289(59) C.

Positrons
The reverse reaction, electron–positron creation, is a form of pair production governed by two-photon physics.

Two-photon physics, also called gamma-gamma physics, studies the interactions between two photons. If the energy in the center of mass system of the two photons is large enough, matter can be created.


 * &rarr; +

In nuclear physics, the above reaction occurs when a high-energy photon interacts with a nucleus. The photon must have enough energy [> 2*511 keV, or 1.022 MeV] to create an electron plus a positron. Without a nucleus to absorb momentum, a photon decaying into electron-positron pair (or other pairs for that matter [such as a muon and anti-muon or a tau and anti-tau] can never conserve energy and momentum simultaneously.

These interactions were first observed in Patrick Blackett's counter-controlled cloud chamber. In 2008 the Titan laser aimed at a 1-millimeter-thick gold target was used to generate positron–electron pairs in large numbers. "The LLNL scientists created the positrons by shooting the lab's high-powered Titan laser onto a one-millimeter-thick piece of gold."

Muons
"The muons created through decays of secondary pions and kaons are fully polarized, which results in electron/positron decay asymmetry, which in turn causes a difference in their production spectra."

Neutrinos
The next smallest particles are neutrinos. They have a chargon balance and spinon balance like two photons together.

Physics
In physics,


 * $$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\ $$,

where:
 * F is the force between the masses,
 * G is the gravitational constant,
 * m1 is the first mass,
 * m2 is the second mass, and
 * r is the distance between the centers of the masses, and

Coulomb's law states that the electrostatic force $$F$$ experienced by a charge, $$q$$ at position $$r_q$$, in the vicinity of another charge, $$Q$$ at position $$r_Q$$, in vacuum is equal to:


 * $$F = {qQ\over4\pi\varepsilon_0}{1\over {r^2}},$$

so that


 * $$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\ = {qQ\over4\pi\varepsilon_0}{1\over {r^2}}.$$

Reducing this


 * $$G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\ = {qQ\over4\pi\varepsilon_0}{1\over {r^2}},$$


 * $$G m_1 m_2 = \frac{qQ}{4\pi\varepsilon_0},$$


 * $$G = \frac{qQ}{4\pi\varepsilon_0 m_1 m_2},$$


 * $$G^{\frac{1}{2}} = 2.58\times 10^{-4} e.s.u. per gram.$$

"That [gravitation] may actually be electrostatic charge per gram thus offers itself as an explanation of gravity. But this naive interpretation has been avoided because of the formidable problems incurred by the apparently complete nonpolarity of gravity and the absence of a satisfactory mechanism for the accumulation of the required amount of charge on one body, e.g., 1.54 x 1024 e.s.u. for the earth and 5.16 x 1029 e.s.u. for the sun."

Radiation
There "are several reasons to believe that gravity is actually of electrical and magnetic origin."
 * 1) "the earth is being continually and uniformly bombarded by cosmic radiation at a rate evidently in excess of 1015 cosmic-ray particles per second. Moreover, the primaries of cosmic radiation are apparently almost entirely positive ions.(9) As a matter of fact our magnetic field is such as to permit penetration by charges only of e/m [about] 1014 e.s.u./gram or less. Therefore electrons would need to have relativistic masses of around 3 x 103 m0 to penetrate the earth's magnetic field. While this is well within the energy range of cosmic radiation, at least many times more positives than negatives penetrate into the earth's atmosphere. But at a minimum of 1015 elementary positive charges per second or about 106 e.s.u. per second for the whole earth the charge on the earth would increase at a rate of at least 1013 e.s.u. per year."
 * 2) the "magnetic moment of the earth has the value required by a circulating charge distribution corresponding to the charge G½ Me distributed approximately uniformly throughout the earth(1), i.e., µe = ee he/2Mec where ee is G½ Me, µe the earth's magnetic moment, he the mechanical moment of the earth and c the velocity of light."
 * 3) "the same fundamental laws [seem to] apply in celestial as in atomic and molecular (and probably also nuclear) systems. [...] gravity is intimately related to the radiation from the central body. The most important correlation bearing out this intimate relation to atomic systems is the observed coupling between orbital and spin states".
 * 4) "It is possible to take a large sample of the matter on the earth, namely that comprising the atmosphere, or 5.27 x 1021 grams, and show that it contains, within experimental error, the required electrical charge, namely about 1.36 x 1018 e.s.u. [We may] treat the atmosphere as a concentric-sphere condensor [capacitor] with the base of the atmosphere or the lithosphere as the inner sphere [and the approximate base of the ionosphere as the outer sphere. This] amounts to about 0.6 to 3.17 volts/cm (positive vertically upward so that q is positive) near the earth's surface. The average value is required to be 3.1 volts/cm in order that G½ M = q which is in excellent accord with the observed atmospheric potential gradient."

Electromagnetics
In the "case [...] of a charged sphere moving through an unlimited space filled with a medium of specific inductive capacity K. The charged sphere will produce an electric displacement throughout the field; and as the sphere moves the magnitude of this displacement at any point will vary. Now, according to Maxwell's theory, a variation in the electric displacement produces the same effect as an electric current; and a field in which electric currents exist is a seat of energy; hence the motion of the charged sphere has developed energy, and consequently the charged sphere must experience a resistance as it moves through the dielectric. But as the theory of the variation of the electric displacement does not take into account any thing corresponding to resistance in conductors, there can [be] no dissipation of energy through the medium; hence the resistance cannot be analogous to an ordinary frictional resistance, but must correspond to the resistance theoretically experienced by a solid in moving through a perfect fluid. In other words, it must be equivalent to an increase in the mass of the charged moving sphere".

Electromagnetic interactions
Sources of electromagnetic fields consist of two types of charge – positive and negative.

The relative strengths and ranges of the charge interactions:

From an electromagnetic-type interaction point of view, the gravity interaction, or gravitational interaction, is a heavily charge-balanced ever so slight excess of positive charge amounting to 10-36 of a proton for the mass of a proton. Gravity owes its ability to attract other objects due to their apparent charge excess often represented by mass.

Gravitationals
Gravitational radiation appears to be cylindrical waves of radiation produced by relativistic, undulatory gravitational fields in Euclidean space.

As the gravitational interaction is 10-36 that of the electromagnetic interaction to produce gravitational radiation requires a massive oscillator.

At right are the results from the first gravitational radiation detection. The images show the radiation signals received by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory (LIGO) instruments at Hanford, Washington (left) and Livingston, Louisiana (right) and comparisons of these signals to the signals expected due to a black hole merger event.

The wavelength of the gravitational waves is given by for example: 3 x 108 m‧s-1/400 Hz = 750,000 m, which is way longer than radio waves but expected for such a weak oscillator. 35 Hz corresponds to 8,600,000 m.

LIGO operates two detectors located 3000 km (1800 miles) apart: One in eastern Washington near Hanford, and the other near Livingston, Louisiana. The photo on the left shows the Livingston detector.

"According to general relativity, a pair of black holes orbiting around each other lose energy through the emission of gravitational waves, causing them to gradually approach each other over billions of years, and then much more quickly in the final minutes. During the final fraction of a second, the two black holes collide at nearly half the speed of light and form a single, more massive black hole, converting a portion of the combined black holes' mass to energy, according to Einstein's formula E=mc2. This energy is emitted as a final strong burst of gravitational waves. These are the gravitational waves that LIGO observed."

"LIGO’s twin interferometers bounce laser beams between mirrors at the opposite ends of 4-kilometre-long vacuum pipes that are set perpendicularly to each other. A gravitational wave passing through will alter the length of one of the arms, causing the laser beams to shift slightly out of sync."

Later detection confirmed the fusion of two massive stellar-sized objects, a binary neutron star merger.

"According to Einstein's field equations, photon matter subject to quadruple oscillations is a source of gravitational waves."

"In this work, we present a solution to the first stage of a new two-stage global treatment of the vacuum binary black hole problem [1, 2]. The approach, based upon characteristic evolution, has been carried out in the regime of Schwarzschild perturbations where advanced and retarded solutions of the linearized problem can be rigorously identified [3]. Computational experiments are necessary to study the applicability of the approach to the nonlinear regime. From a time-reversed viewpoint, this first stage is equivalent to the determination of the outgoing radiation emitted from the fission of a white hole in the absence of ingoing radiation. This provides the physically correct “retarded” waveform for a white hole fission, were such events to occur in the universe. Although there is no standard astrophysical mechanism for producing white holes from a nonsingular matter distribution, white holes of primordial or quantum gravitational origin cannot be ruled out."

"This fission problem has a simpler formulation as a characteristic initial value problem than the black hole merger problem. The boundary of the (conformally compactified) exterior spacetime contains two null hypersurfaces where boundary conditions must be satisfied: past null infinity I−, where the incoming radiation must vanish, and the white hole event horizon H−, which must describe a white hole, which is initially in equilibrium with no ingoing radiation and then distorts and ultimately fissions into two white holes with the emission of outgoing gravitational waves."

An almost identical signal could originate from a comparable much more massive neutron star fission.

"This is an exciting time to study gravitation, astrophysics and cosmology. Through challenging cosmic microwave background (CMB) and supernovae observations cosmology has been turned on its head. Gravitational radiation astronomy should be the next contributor to this revolution in astrophysics and cosmology."

Weak forces
"An electric system in a medium [such as interstellar plasma] whose specific inductive capacity [permittivity, ε] varies from point to point tends to move in the direction of increasing [ε]."

"If [...] the specific inductive capacity of the [medium varies as the density of the plasma varies especially] near matter, gravitation may be explained as a result of this tendency."

"In a medium in which at a distance from a mass [...] a rigid electrostatic system would be acted on by a force directed toward [...] the electromagnetic mass of the system."

Continua
Some "particles might be their own antimatter partners [...] The new Majorana particle showed up inside a superconductor [...] a long chain of iron atoms, which are magnetic, [were placed] on top of a superconductor made of lead. [...] the magnetic chain turned into a special type of superconductor in which electrons next to one another in the chain coordinated their spins to simultaneously satisfy the requirements of magnetism and superconductivity. Each of these pairs can be thought of as an electron and an antielectron, with a negative and a positive charge, respectively. That arrangement, however, leaves one electron at each end of the chain without a neighbor to pair with, causing them to take on the properties of both electrons and antielectrons — in other words, Majorana particles."

These "Majoranas are what’s called emergent particles. They emerge from the collective properties of the surrounding matter and could not exist outside the superconductor."

“Once you find the concept to be correct, it’s very likely that it shows up in another layer of physics. That’s what’s exciting.”

Hypotheses

 * 1) The charge carrier is the photon.
 * 2) A photon carries charge as a chargon and kinetics as a spinon.
 * 3) When photons become enparticled, an electron, a positron, or a neutrino result.
 * 4) As electromagnetic radiation becomes enparticled, the local charge density increases.