Draft:Original research/Geographic coordinates

At present the geographic coordinates on Earth of latitude and longitude translate to right ascension and declination from the Greenwich meridian and the equator as projected on the celestial sphere.

But, other records may exist even here on Earth that use specific stars or bright lights in the sky especially at night that appear fixed relative to others.

Depending on the stability of the rotation of the Earth around its geographic North and South poles, the equator may vary in location.

Coordinates
A Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0,0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.

Fixed point in the sky
The observations require precise measurement and adaptations to the movements of the Earth, especially when and where, for a time, an object or entity is available.

With the creation of a geographical grid, an observer needs to be able to fix a point in the sky. From many observations within a period of stability, an observer notices that patterns of visual objects or entities in the night sky repeat. Further, a choice is available: is the Earth moving or are the star patterns moving? Depending on latitude, the observer may have noticed that the days vary in length and the pattern of variation repeats after some number of days and nights. By choosing an equal day/night position among the fixed objects in the night sky, the observer can measure equatorial coordinates: declination (Dec) and right ascension (RA).

Once these can be determined, the apparent absolute positions of objects or entities are available in a communicable form. The repeat pattern of (day/night)s allows the observer to calculate the RA and Dec at any point during the cycle for a new object, or approximations are made using RA and Dec for recognized objects. Independent of the choice made (Earth moves or not), the pattern of objects is the same for days or nights of the repeating length once a year. The vernal equinox is a day/night of equal length and the same pattern of objects in the night sky. The autumnal equinox is the other equal length day/night with its own pattern of objects in the night sky.

The projection of the Earth's equator and poles of rotation, or if the observer hasn't concluded as yet that it's the Earth that's rotating, the circulating pattern of stars in ever smaller circles heading in specific directions, is the celestial sphere.

Map reliability
"Ancient maps of seagrass beds are usually available for many areas of the marine realm. For the study area, a series of maps spanning more than one century were available. Biological features of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica made possible an attempt to set up and calibrate a Reliability Index (RI) for these ancient maps. Unfortunately, most of them appear to be totally unreliable. Some other maps are sufficient to provide a rough sketch of the location of the meadows, but not to assess possible changes with time. Finally, a very few recent maps are sufficiently accurate to allow cautious assumptions on meadow dynamics. It is worth noting that (i) whatever the cartographical method, no map of benthic communities is accurate everywhere and at all scales; (ii) the relevance of a map is dependent upon the purpose for which it was established or the utilization that is intended, e.g. short term monitoring of the meadow’s state of health, long term dynamics, coastal development or management of a high value natural heritage community."

Datum shifts
"Coordinate values resulting from interpreting latitude, longitude, and height values based on one datum as though they were based in another datum can cause position errors in three dimensions of up to one kilometer."

Equators
"The Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is the region that circles the Earth, near the equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ, raising its humidity and making it buoyant. Aided by the convergence of the trade winds, the buoyant air rises. As the air rises it expands and cools, releasing the accumulated moisture in an almost perpetual series of thunderstorms."

"Seasonal shifts in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the ITCZ can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas."

"This image [on the right] is a combination of cloud data from NOAA’s newest Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES-11) and color land cover classification data. The ITCZ is the band of bright white clouds that cuts across the center of the image."

Null Island
Null Island is a name for the area around the point where the prime meridian and the equator cross, located in the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) off the west African coast.

In terms of computing and placenames databases, the coordinates for Null Island were added to the Natural Earth public domain map dataset c. 2010–2011, after which the term came into wide use (although there is evidence of it being used previously).

Togo
Togo is located at 6°8'N 1°13'E.

Benin
Benin is located at 6°28'N 2°36'E.

Annobón
Annobón is at 1°25'S 5°38'E.

Annobón is an extinct volcano about 220 mi west of Cape Lopez in Gabon and 110 mi southwest of São Tomé Island. The main island measures about 4 mi long by 2 mi wide, with an area of about 6+3/4 sqmi, but a number of small rocky islets surround it, including Santarém to the south. Its central crater lake is named Lago A Pot and its highest peak is Quioveo, which rises 598 m. The island is characterized by a succession of lush valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich woods and luxuriant vegetation.

Annobón is often described as being "in the Gulf of Guinea", for example, by the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. like the neighboring islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, but the formal boundary line for the Gulf of Guinea established by the International Hydrographic Organization actually runs north of it. From the 1953 Limits of Oceans and Seas: "(34) A line running south-eastwards from Cape Palmas in Liberia to Cape Lopez [in Gabon] (0°38' S, 8°42' E)."

Ilhéu das Rolas
Ilhéu das Rolas is located at 0°00'14"S 6°31'21"E.

São Tomé
The independent nation of São Tomé and Príncipe has an equatorial marker shown on the right in São Tomé. São Tomé is located at 0°14'N 6°36'E. It is located 2 km (1¼ miles) north of the equator. The island is surrounded by a number of small islands, including Ilhéu das Rolas, Ilhéu das Cabras and Ilhéu Gabado. The youngest dated rock on the island is about 100,000 years old, but numerous more recent cinder cones are found on the southeast side of the island.

Príncipe
Príncipe is located at 1°37'N 7°24'E.

Bioko
Bioko is located at 3°30'N 8°41'E.

The island is located off Cameroon, in the Bight of Bonny portion of the Gulf of Guinea. Its geology is volcanic; its highest peak is Pico Basile at 3012 m.

Corisco
Corisco is located at 0°55'N 9°19'E.

Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea is located at 1°30'N 10°00'E.

Cameroon
Cameroon is located at 6°N 12°E.

Gabon
Gabon is located at 1°S 12°E.

On the right is an image of a sign announcing the equator in Gabon in Libreville.

Republic of the Congo
The equator passes through the Republic of the Congo as shown in the map on the right.

Republic of the Congo is located at 1.44°S 15.556°E.

Democraphic Republic of the Congo
The map on the right shows the equator passing through the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Democratic Republic of the Congo is located at 3°S 24°E.

Idjwi
Idjwi is located at 2°9'57"S 29°3'22"E.

Uganda
Uganda is located at 1°N 32°E.

Near the city of Masaka, Uganda, is this equatorial monument in the image on the right.

The map on the left shows approximately where the equator passes through Uganda.

Ssese Islands
Ssese Islands are located at 00°26'00"S 32°15'00"E.

Bugala
Bugala is located at 00°25'8"S 32°15'00"E.

Ukerewe
Ukerewe is located at 2°1'45"S 33°0'35"E.

Tanzania
Tanzania is located at 6°S 35°E.

Kenya
Kenya is located at 1°N 38°E.

On the right is a sign posted on the equator in Kenya.

The equator passes through Kenya as shown in the map on the left.

Zanzibar
Zanzibar is located at 6°08'S 39°19'E.

Somalia
Somalia is located at 10°N 49°E.

Maldives
North and South Malosmadulu Atols are in the Maldives, an island republic in the northern Indian Ocean, southwest of India. Maldives is made up of a chain of 1192 small coral islands that are grouped into clusters of atolls. It has a total area of 298 sq km and a population of about 330,000. The capital and largest city is Male, with a population of about 80,000. Arguably the lowest-lying country in the world, the average elevation is 1 m above sea level. Waves triggered by the great tsunami of December 2004 spilled over sea walls to flood Male with sand-clouded water and then swept out just as suddenly. Residents fear this was a foreboding of disasters to come from sea-level rise due to global warming. The simulated natural color ASTER image was acquired 22 December 2002, covers an area of 50.8 x 90.4 km, and is centered near 5.3 degrees north latitude, 73.9 degrees west longitude.

Raa Atoll is located at 5°38'N 72°55'E.

Alifushi
Physical location of the equirectangular projection: 7.5°N, 1.2°S, 71.9°E, 74.7°E.

Alifushi is located at 5°58'00"N 72°57'15"E, left upper atoll before angled atolls.

Simeulue
Simeulue is located at 2°35'N 96°05'E.

Nias
Nias is located at 1°6'N 97°32'E.

Pini
Pini is located at 0.10°N 98.70°E.

Sumatera Island
Sumatera is Indonesian for Sumatra. Sumatera is located at 00°N 102°E.

Singapore
Singapore is located at 1.3°N 103.8°E.

Singapore is an island city-state in Southeast Asia that lies one degree (137 km) north of the equator, at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, with Indonesia's Riau Islands to the south and Peninsular Malaysia to the north. Singapore's territory consists of Pulau Ujong (main island) along with 62 other islets.

Christmas Island
Christmas Island is located at 10°29'S 105°38'E.

Matak
Matak is located at 3.33°N 106.29°E in the South China Sea.

Borneo
The equatorial monument at Pontianak, Borneo, Indonesia, has Google Earth Latitude: 0° 8'35.40"N Longitude: 109°15'26.78"E.

Sapudi
Sapudi is located at 7.15°S 114.35°E.

Sebuku
Sebuku is located at 3.50°S 116.35°E.

Sangeang
Sangeang is located at 8.20°S 119.05°E.

Taiwan
Taiwan is located at 25°02'N 121°38'E.

Togian
Togian is located at 0.39°S 121.94°E.

Timor
Timor is located at 9°14'S 124°56'E.

Tidore
Tidore is located at 0.67°N 127.42°E.

Ngulu
Ngulu is located at 8.50°N 137.50°E.

Fais
Fais is located 9.75°N 140.52°E.

New Guinea
New Guinea is located at 5°30'S 141°00'E.

Eauripik
Eauripik is located at 6.70°N 143.07°E.

Elato
Elato is located at 7.45°N 146.15°E.

Romanum
Romanum is located at 7°26'29"N 151°40'9"E.

Etal
Etal is located at 5.41°N 153.51°E.

Kapingamarangi
Kapingamarangi is located at 0.57°N 154.71°E.

Nukuoro
Nukuoro is located at 3.88°N 154.95°E.

Pohnpei
Pohnpei is located at 6°53'N 158°14'E.

Kosrae
Kosrae, or Kusaie, is located 5.11°N 162.88°E.

Nauru
Nauru is located at 0°32'S 166°55'E.

Banaba
Banaba is located at 0°51'34"S 169°32'13"E.

Butaritari
Butaritari is located at 3°10'04"N 172°49'33"E.

Makin
Makin is located at 3°23'00"N 173°00'00"E.

Abaiang
Abaiang is located at 1°50'N 172°57'E.

Maiana
Maiana is located at 0°55'N 173°00'E.

Tarawa
Tarawa is located at 1°20'N 173°00'E.

Marakei
Marakei is located at 2°00'N 173°17'E.

Kuria
Kuria is located at 0°13'N 173°24'E.

Aranuka
Aranuka is located at 0°09'N 173°35'E.

Abemama
Abemama is located at 0°24'N 173°50'E.

Nonouti
Nonouti is located at 0°40'S 174°20E.

Howland Island
Howland Island is located at 0°48'25.85"N 176°36'59.48"W. Tabiteuea is located at 1°21'S 174°48'E.

Baker Island
Baker Island is at 00°13'N 176°28'W.

Winslow Reef
Winslow Reef is a submerged coral reef located at 01°36'S 174°57'W.

Nikumaroro
Gardner Island is located at 04°40'S 174°31'W.

The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) made several expeditions to Nikumaroro during the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, finding possible evidence, but no conclusive proof, of this theory. Investigation and expeditions to the island continue.

McKean Island
McKean Island is located at 03°36'S 174°08'W.

Carondelet Reef
Carondelet Reef is located at 05°34'S 173°51'W.

Kiribati
Kiribati is located at 1°25'N 173°00'W. It's one of those volcanic peaks in the central Pacific as shown on this map of the Pacific Ocean basin.

Orona
Hull Island is located at 04°30'S 172°10'W.

An ancient stone marae stands on the eastern tip of the island, together with ruins of shelters, graves and other platforms.

Kanton Island
Kanton Island is located at 02°48'38"S 171°40'32"W.

Birnie Island
Birnie Island is located at 03°35'S 171°33'W.

Manra
Sydney Island is located at 04°27'S 171°15'W.

Enderbury Island
Enderbury Island is located at 3°08'S 171°05'W.

Rawaki
Phoenix Island is located at 03°43'S 170°43'W.

Jarvis Island
Jarvis Island, formerly known as Bunker Island, or Bunker's Shoal is located at 0°22'S 160°01'W in the South Pacific Ocean.

Kiritimati
Christmas Island is located at 1°53'N 157°24'W.

Malden
Malden is located at 4°1'S 154°56'W.

Darwin
Darwin is located at 1.678°N 92.003°W in the Galápagos Islands.

Isabela
Isabela is located at 00°30'S 91°04'W in the Galápagos Islands.

Galápagos Islands
The islands are found at the coordinates 1°40'N–1°36'S, 89°16'–92°01'W. Straddling the equator, islands in the chain are located in both the northern and southern hemispheres, with Volcán Wolf and Volcán Ecuador on Isla Isabela being directly on the equator.

Ecuador
The volcano Cayambe is located at 0.029°0′0″N 77.986°0′0″W. It is the only permanent snow (glacier) capped peak along the equator.

An equatorial marker in Cayambe, Ecuador, is shown on the right.

Another equatorial marker in Ecuador is Mitad del Mundo, Quito, second image down on the right.

Ecuador is located at 2°00'S 77°30'W.

Colombia
Colombia is located at 4°N 72°W.

Suriname
Suriname is located at 4°N 56°W.

Brazil
On the right is the equatorial marker in Macapá, Brazil.

Brazil is located at 10°S 52°W.

Caviana
Caviana is located at 0°10'N 50°00'W.

Marajó
Marajó is located at 0°59'S 49°35'W in the delta of the Amazon River.

Mosqueiro
Mosqueiro is located at 1.1°S 48.4°W.

Rocas Atoll
The atoll is of volcanic origin and coralline formation.

Rocas Atoll is located at 03°52'S 33°49'W.

Fernando de Noronha
Fernando de Noronha is located at 3°51'13.71"S 32°25'25.63"W.

Ascension
Ascension Island is located at 7°56'S 14°22'W.

Bobowasi
Bobowasi Island is located at 04°52'N 02°15'W.

Meridians
The image on the right shows the nations or territories that touch the Equator (red) or the IERS Reference Meridian (blue), or Prime Meridian.

Infrareds
"On August 17, 2009, at 1:31 p.m. EST, the latest NASA/NOAA geostationary weather satellite, called GOES-14, returned its first full-disk thermal infrared (IR) image, showing radiation with a wavelength of 10.7 micrometers emanating from Earth. Infrared images are useful because they provide information about temperatures."

"A band of scattered storms [in the second image down on the right] across the equatorial Pacific shows the location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which is a belt of showers and thunderstorms that persists near the equator year round. Need help precisely locating the equator? Look for the dark (hot) spots in the Pacific Ocean west of South America: those are the Galapagos Islands, and the equator passes through the northern tip of the largest island."

Hypotheses

 * 1) Each geographic coordinate system throughout hominin experience is correlated to the current latitude and longitude.
 * 2) If the Earth's rotational axis has varied over hominin experience then current latitude and longitude needs to be corrected to the appropriate past for understanding.