Materials Science and Engineering/Equations

Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics:


 * $$dU=\delta Q-\delta W\,$$

Second Law of Thermodynamics:


 * $$\int \frac{\delta Q}{T} \ge 0$$

Fundamental Equations
The Fundamental Equation:


 * $$dU \le TdS-pdV+\sum_{i=1}^p\mu_idN_i$$

The equation may be seen as a particular case of the chain rule:


 * $$dU=

\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial S}\right)_{V,\{N_i\}}dS+ \left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right)_{S,\{N_i\}}dV+ \sum_i\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial N_i}\right)_{S,V,\{N_{j \ne i}\}}dN_i $$

from which the following identifications can be made:


 * $$\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial S}\right)_{V,\{N_i\}}=T$$
 * $$\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right)_{S,\{N_i\}}=-p$$
 * $$\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial N_i}\right)_{S,V,\{N_{j \ne i}\}}=\mu_i$$

These equations are known as "equations of state" with respect to the internal energy.

Thermodynamic Potentials
Thermodynamic Potentials:


 * {| border="0" cellpadding="4" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em"


 * Name
 * Formula
 * Natural variables
 * Internal energy
 * $$U\,$$
 * align="center"|$$S,V,\{N_i\}\,$$
 * Helmholtz free energy
 * $$A=U-TS\,$$
 * align="center"|$$T,V,\{N_i\}\,$$
 * Enthalpy
 * $$H=U+pV\,$$
 * align="center"|$$S,p,\{N_i\}\,$$
 * Gibbs free energy
 * $$G=U+pV-TS\,$$
 * align="center"|$$T,p,\{N_i\}\,$$
 * }
 * Gibbs free energy
 * $$G=U+pV-TS\,$$
 * align="center"|$$T,p,\{N_i\}\,$$
 * }
 * }

For the above four potentials, the fundamental equations are expressed as:


 * $$dU\left(S,V,{N_{i}}\right) = TdS - pdV + \sum_{i} \mu_{i} dN_i$$
 * $$dA\left(T,V,N_{i}\right) = -SdT - pdV + \sum_{i} \mu_{i} dN_{i}$$
 * $$dH\left(S,p,N_{i}\right) = TdS + Vdp + \sum_{i} \mu_{i} dN_{i}$$
 * $$dG\left(T,p,N_{i}\right) = -SdT + Vdp + \sum_{i} \mu_{i} dN_{i}$$

Euler Integrals:

Because all of natural variables of the internal energy U are extensive quantities, it follows from Euler's homogeneous function theorem that


 * $$U=TS-pV+\sum_i \mu_i N_i\,$$

Substituting into the expressions for the other main potentials we have the following expressions for the thermodynamic potentials:


 * $$A= -pV+\sum_i \mu_i N_i\,$$


 * $$H=TS  +\sum_i \mu_i N_i\,$$


 * $$G=     \sum_i \mu_i N_i\,$$

Note that the Euler integrals are sometimes also referred to as fundamental equations.

Gibbs Duhem Relationship:

Differentiating the Euler equation for the internal energy and combining with the fundamental equation for internal energy, it follows that:


 * $$0=SdT-Vdp+\sum_iN_id\mu_i\,$$

which is known as the Gibbs-Duhem relationship. The Gibbs-Duhem is a relationship among the intensive parameters of the system. It follows that for a simple system with r components, there will be r+1 independent parameters, or degrees of freedom. For example, a simple system with a single component will have two degrees of freedom, and may be specified by only two parameters, such as pressure and volume for example. The law is named after Josiah Gibbs and Pierre Duhem.

Materials Properties
Compressibility: At constant temperature or constant entropy
 * $$~ \beta_{T \text{ or } S} = -{ 1\over V } \left ( {\partial V\over \partial p} \right )_{T,N \text{ or } S,N}$$

Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure:

$$~ C_p=\left ( {\partial U\over \partial T} \right )_p +p \left ( {\partial V\over \partial T} \right )_p = \left ( {\partial H\over \partial T} \right )_p = T \left ( {\partial S\over \partial T} \right )_p ~$$

Heat Capacity at Constant Volume:

$$~ C_V=\left ( {\partial U\over \partial T} \right )_V = T \left ( {\partial S\over \partial T} \right )_V ~$$

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:


 * $$\alpha_{p} = \frac{1}{V}\left(\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right)_p$$

Maxwell Relations:

Maxwell relations are equalities involving the second derivatives of thermodynamic potentials with respect to their natural variables. They follow directly from the fact that the order of differentiation does not matter when taking the second derivative. The four most common Maxwell relations are:



= -\left ( {\partial p\over \partial S} \right )_{V,N} ~$$ = \left ( {\partial V\over \partial S} \right )_{p,N} ~$$ = -\left ( {\partial p\over \partial S} \right )_{T,N} ~$$ = \left ( {\partial V\over \partial S} \right )_{T,N} ~$$
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial V} \right )_{S,N}
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial V} \right )_{S,N}
 * width="80"|
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial p} \right )_{S,n}
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial V} \right )_{p,N}
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial V} \right )_{p,N}
 * width="80"|
 * $$~ \left ( {\partial T\over \partial p} \right )_{V,N}
 * }

Processes
Incremental Processes:

$$~ dU = T\,dS-p\,dV + \mu\,dN ~$$

$$~ dA = -S\,dT-p\,dV + \mu\,dN ~$$

$$~ dG = -S\,dT+V\,dp + \mu\,dN = \mu\,dN +N\,d\mu ~$$

$$~ dH = T\,dS+V\,dp + \mu\,dN ~$$

Equation Table for an Ideal Gas ($$PV^m=constant$$):