Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Body modification and emotion

Overview
Whate role do our emotions in the choice to modify one’s body?

Many people find it hard to understand why anyone would choose to have piercings besides the more common ones such as ears or nose piercings, why someone would choose to have tattoos, to get breast implants, go through scarification, become a body builder, go through the process of body suspension, and other body modifications. This page will address the emotions that lie underneath an individual’s decision to go through with body modification. This book chapter will examine the types of body modification, explore a number of personality factors, relevant theories and case studies, and why individuals decide to modify their bodies, using a number of studies and evidence to support these ideas.

History
Body modification has been around for thousands of years. There is evidence of body modification going as far back as 3300 BCE, from the discovery in 1991 of the iceman Otzi (Leone, 2010). If we look into the history of body modification, we can see that it has been a part of many different cultures and religions, in many different countries. Piercings have been documented in the Middle East as far back as 4,000 years (Leone, 2010). Piercings have also been mentioned as far back as the Bible (Genesis 24:22, Isaiah 3:21). A number of body modifications have been around for as long as humans have lived, with its rich and captivating history from all over the world, it is becoming more acceptable in some countries.

What is body modification?
Body modification is the deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance (Thompson & Black, 2010).

Types of body modification:
Tattooing is the act of inserting ink by a needle under the skin to create a permanent design. The word tattoo is from Polynesian tatau, meaning "correct, workmanlike" (Polynesia, 2014). According to the American Academy of Dermatology, there are five types of tattoos, these include medical tattoos, cosmetic tattoos, professional tattoos, amateur tattoos, and traumatic tattoos (The American Academy of Dermatology, 2012).

Body piercings are the puncturing of the skin or part of the human body, that opens a hole for piercings or spacers to be worn. The most common piercings are ear piercings and nose piercings. The reasons behind piercings can be seen as far back as 5,000 years ago, when the oldest mummified remains ever found wore ear piercings.(Crystalinks, 2013). Piercings started growing in popularity from the 1960s (Porterfield, 2003) and not long after in the 1970s, piercings began to increase as part of the punk movement, including stretching of the earlobes.(Prisant, 2003). In today's society body piercings are more widely acceptable and are subject to fashion and trends.

Body suspension is the act of putting hooks through recently done body piercings, and dangling the human body attached to the hooks and piercings. this act was introduced in 1832, it was known as the Okipa ceremony, which is a celebration for the creation of the Earth. Modern suspensions are performed to represent artwork, secular activity, and as a therapeutic experience, the 5,000 year history of the "art" comes down to physics, spirituality, and risk (Marshall, 2012).

Surgical augmentation is the term used for breast-implants, which means to surgically reconstruct the breast of an individual. Reconstruction includes altering the texture, changing the shape, increasing the size, and lifting the breast. People may do this for a number of reasons, such as, self image, repair after breast cancer, or to correct defects of the chest area.



Scarification is the process of burning, branding, etching, scratching, or cutting designs into the skin. the purpose of scarification is to permanently scar the body, similar to tattoos. As well as religious and social reasons, there are currently four hypotheses behind the behaviour ecology of scarification: (1) a rite of passage, (2) a hardening/trauma procedure, (3) a nonadaptive sexually selected character, or (4) an adaptive pathogen-driven sexually selected character (Ludvico, 1995).

Personality factors and body modification
There are a number of reasons why an individual makes the decision to modify ones own body, a big influence is emotion and the wide range of personality variables that individual may obtain or have at that period of time. Although extraversion, risk taking, and other personality factors may not be an emotion, emotions play a large part in determining these behaviours, and understanding what personality factors are associated with body modification will help break down what emotions play a role.

Extraversion
According to the Stimulation Theory, which focuses on results from experimenting exclusively with tattoos, individuals choose to have body modifications in order to fulfil their increased need for stimulation as a result of being an extravert (Copes & Forsyth, 1993). The stimulation theory proposed that from the sample of 138 male customers at tattoo parlours and college students, who completed a shortened version of the Eysenck Personality Inventory, results found that increased levels of extraversion could be utilised to explain associations between tattoos and delinquency discovered in previous research. Copes & Forsyth (1993) explained that tattoos were attempts at securing social stimulation, desire to appear heroic in the face of pain, and showing off, for individuals with high levels of introversion and delinquency.

Deviance
Many people assume that if an individual has gone through body modification, they must be a deviant, part of a gang, or a criminal. Lombroso (1896) highlights the strong connection between body modification and deviancy after studying 5000 criminals with tattoos and piercings, claiming that he had “proved that this custom is a completely savage one which does not prevail extensively except among criminals” (Lombroso, 1896, p. 803). Since Lombroso, there has been a large number of studies linking criminals with body modification, though results slowly changed as time went on, and body modification becoming more accepting. A more recent study conducted by Burgess & Clark (2010) provides a different perspective, looking into different types of tattoos via photographs of potential job applicants. The results from 300 participants revealed that individuals with tribal or traditional tattoos were more likely to be associated as delinquents than individuals with cute and contemporary tattoos. The idea of individuals with body modifications has moved from all individuals with body modifications being delinquents to only some individuals with body modifications, depending on what type of body modification they have chosen, being associated with deviancy.

Impulsivity
Body modification and impulsive acts have been frequently investigated, especially within adolescence and the knowledge of this age being the stage of exploring diverse identity opportunities. Roberti et al. (2004) examined body modification, impulsivity, sensation seeking, and psychosocial stressors in 281 college students. Significant differences were found within the number of body modifications and gender differences, with males having more body modifications than females. Psychosocial stressors predicted the number of piercings and sensation seeking significantly amplified the estimate of tattoos, with 34% variance explained (p = .019). This study had a similar outcome to previous studies, as highlighted in the conclusion, “the findings are consistent with others in suggesting that college students are a large proportion of those obtaining body modifications” (Roberti, et al., 2004, p. 1174). Some studies have found a relationship between impulsivity and extraversion (Sipps & Alexander, 1987), while others have formed this link between impulsivity and psychoticism (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001).

Risk taking
A study by Forbes (2001) looked at body modifications, body acceptance, and personality traits in 323 anthropology students. The findings revealed that the most common reasons for getting body modifications was liking the look of it, and self-expression. Feeling independent was also a popular reason, although it was a significantly higher answer from women compared to men. The study also highlights that individuals with body modifications were more likely to have higher risk taking behaviours, and are less likely to conform to social expectations.

Sensation seeking
An individual with a sensation seeking characteristic are viewed as someone who seeks thrills and excitement, and someone who is more likely to have body modifications. A study that can support this claim includes a German experiment involving participants rating the characters of non-tattooed people and tattooed people (Wohlrab, Fink, Kappeler, & Brewer, 2009). As a result of this experiment, the participants rated body modified people as higher on adventure seeking, experience seeking, thrill seeking, susceptibility to boredom, have had more sexual partners, and lower on inhibition compared to those who have no body modifications.

Need for uniqueness
Tiggemann and Golder (2006) did a study fucsing on the need for uniqueness, involving 50 indivduals with body modifications and 50 individuals without body modifications. From the results of the study, they stated that a need for uniqueness drives the craving for a tattoo.

Self-esteem
Carroll & Anderson (2002) investigated the relationship between body modifications, boy investment, depression, anger, and self-esteem in “at risk” high school girls. Body modification was positively linked to anger, and negative feelings about one’s body.

Personality and emotion
Emotions can affect an individual’s motivation, disposition, temperament, and personality. Emotions can easily influence personality, as personality is built up of feelings, thoughts, actions, and desires. What individuals observe when around others is their emotions, it is their personality that they expect. For example, if an individual chose to get a tattoo, they would go through a number of stages of emotion from doing so, such emotions may include pure certainty, slight self doubt, indecisiveness, excitement, anxiety, being brave and joy. Each personality factor described above is built up of emotions that form that characteristic within the individual. As seen in extraversion, there are a large amount of emotions that contribute to extraversion, it just depends on if that individual is emotionally stable or unstable at any given time to what emotions they are using.

Belonging/group membership
Body modification has been utilised to symbolise belonging in many cultures. One of the main factors of group membership is to provide a platform for individuals to build their own identity (Erikson, 1959, 1968). This tends to happen when an individual is exploring new ways to find a way to identify their self, to feel part of an in-group, one may look to an out-group, and this is where body modification and other ways of representing one’s self comes in. According to Sanders (1998) tattoos are a symbol of identity, it changes how that individual sees himself or herself, and how others perceive that individual, holding significant potential for altering social interaction (Sanders, 1998).

Identity or self
The Grounded theory investigates 17 participants why described themselves as gender non-conformists, exploring the participant’s psychological use of body modification (Cimo, 2004). Body modification was viewed as transitional objects, aiding the participant’s view of being an outsider and their sense of control over it. Cimo (2004) described body modification as a way to assimilate parts of the self, be different, and aid an embodied sense of self.

Peak experiences
Some individuals find simplicity in relation to their identity during a peak experience (Maslow, 1961). Peak experiences can be defined as occurrences where things fall into place, and according to Maslow (1961) during this experience people become close to their unique self. One way of doing this according to Gergen & Gergen (1993) is to participate in a dramatic social interaction, such as body modification. Individuals who go through body modification report a feeling of achievement knowing that they have been through the pain, and having come out of it achieving a goal (Sanders, 1988).

Remembrance/rootedness
A big reason to why an individual may chose to go through body modification, especially tattooing, is to remember others, to have a connection to the people, object, or event that holds significant importance to us. Tattoos offer the experience of permanence, and could possibly be grounding for some. Martin (1997) acknowledges that tattoos can provide a sense of stability, and can be constructive and adorning, rather than destructive and an act of mutilation.

Rites of passage
Rites of passage mark a transition in the life of an individual, it may emphasize a new role of the individual, or mark the end of a stage in the individual’s life (Erikson, 1982). Body modification can be seen as a rite of passage in a number of ways, such as a permanent reminder of the transition an individual has gone through, or even going through the ritual of getting body modification and having proof of the endurance of pain they have gone through.

Case study: Personal narrative
We all have a story to tell but we don’t always choose to do so. The story we cannot avoid telling is the one that our body inevitably narrates. - Alessandra Lemma

The book “Under the skin: A psychoanalytic study of body modification” by Alessandra Lemma starts by describing the life of Danny, an adolescent who narrated his traumatic early life through tattoos.

Danny was a troubled boy who found himself in a young offenders’ institution. Alessandra Lemma begins the story by stating that she struggled to look at him. She faced a boy that was covered in tattoos and piercings, on the left side of his check there was a tattoo of a skull, with a pierced ring running through the nose of the skull. Danny was only fifteen at the time when he was convicted for manslaughter.

Danny was the son of drug-addicted parents, and was exposed to violent and disturbing experiences from the very beginning of his life. His father left soon after he was born, and his mother became a prostitute to take care of herself, Danny, and other siblings. Throughout his life he was brought up with drugs, sex and violence, he had been repeatedly physically and sexually abused. When Danny hit puberty, he grew into a large and strong young man. During an argument with his mother, he pushed her down a flight of stair, resulting in her death.

At the age of thirteen, Danny turned to body modification, covering his body with piercings and tattoos. By the time he was convicted for manslaughter, at least 50% of his body was covered in tattoos. Each piercing or tattoo that Danny gained, was a personal stamp on his body, body modification became a kind of addiction. After being sexually and physically abused, he no longer felt that his body was his own, so in a way body modification was his way of reclaiming his body as his own. Through body modification, Danny could express his hate for the people who intruded his body, and it was a way for him to express to society that they should leave him alone.

This case study is an example of a tattoo narrative. Kosut (2000) describes tattoos, in some cases, aid in defining the nature of the connection between self-identity, the body and society.

Body dysmorphic disorder
Body dysmorphic disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an obsessive preoccupation that some part of one's own appearance is severely flawed and permits extraordinary measures to hide or fix it (Cororve et al., 2001).

Between 6-15% of individuals who receive dermatology and cosmetic surgery are reported to have Body dysmorphic disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

Body dysmorphic disorder affects around 1.7% to 2.4% of the population (Bjornsson et al., 2010). The DSM-5 categorises Body dysmorphic disorder in the Obsessive-compulsive spectrum.

Case study: The stalking cat
Dennis Avner, also known as ‘stalking cat’ was a man who underwent an extreme amount of body modifications to transform himself into a female tiger. In total Avner had 14 surgical procedures, and a number of non-surgical modifications. Although Dennis was never diagnosed with body dysmorphic disorder, according to the media, Professor Kevin Gourney of the Institute of Psychiatry stated that it is possible that Dennis Avner could have suffered from an unusual form of body dysmorphic disorder (BBC, 2014).

The modifications include: •	Bifurcating (splitting) his upper lip

•	Filing and capping his teeth (giving them the appearance of fangs)

•	Septum relocation (Flattening his nose)

•	Surgery to his ears, shaping his ears pointed and earlobes elongated

•	Around 20 piercings to his upper lip to wear whiskers

•	Transdermal implants on his forehead to also wear whiskers

•	Wearing green contact lenses with slit irises

•	Facial and body tattooing of tiger stripes

•	Facial subdermal implants to change the shape of the bridge of his nose, brow, and forehead

•	Surgical hairline modification

•	Wearing a robotic tail

The stalking cat began his transformation at the age of 23, starting with the tiger stripe tattoos. The operations were completed by body modification artist Steve Hayward. One of the conditions were that Avner could not have the surgeries with anesthetic, meaning he could feel every operation throughout his transformation, because it is illegal to alter an individual’s appearance beyond what society deems normal in the United States (Forsberg, 2012).

Dennis Avner grew up in a Native American community with individuals from the Lakota and Huron tribes. The name "Stalking Cat" is a Native American name, given to him in childhood by a medicine man of his tribe (Larratt, 2013)

Dennis stated in his interview with Shannon Larratt “It's something that I've always wanted to do - something that I've always had to do” (Larratt, 2013).

Unfortunately on the 5th of November, 2012, at age 54, Dennis Avner committed suicide, the reasons behind this event is not public.

Self-discrepancy theory
Higgins (1987) describes three domains of the self:

Actual self- referred to as the self-concept that comprises of the individual’s beliefs about the qualities that they actually possess.

Ideal self- refers to the qualities the individual would ideally like to possess.

Ought self- consist of the qualities the individual feels they are obliged to possess.

Self-discrepancy theory plays an important role in the context of body modification and the emotional consequences between what an individual looks like, compared to what they want to look like. According to the theory, the discrepancy between an individuals actual self and the ideal/ought self (the self they want to be) results in emotions such as depression and dissatisfaction, because they have not fulfilled their wishes. An example of this in relation to body modification is body dysmorphic disorder, the individual will become obsessive over their appearance until they fulfil their wishes of fixing what they see as a flaw, into an appearance that is more “normal” according to them. An individual perceiving discrepancy between their actual self and their ought self, should result in emotions such as guilt and anxiety. This is because their actual self is not consistent with the qualities that individual feels they are obliged to fulfil. An example in relation to body modification is the link between an individual seeking an out-group to become part of an in-group, this can be a result of the individual feelings as though they are not accepted by society and are an outcast. Through becoming part of a group that is not socially accepted such as “punks” or part of a bikie gang, and gaining body modifications to belong, they may gain feelings of acceptance and it may change how they see himself or herself. Higgens (1987) supports this idea, stating that these discrepancies can motivate the individual to participate in behaviours that will decrease the discrepancy.

Conclusion
Body modification has been around for a long time, it shapes who we are and where we are from, depending on culture, religion, interest and individual differences. Through body modification, people are able to express who they are as an individual, or represent their belonging to a group or culture. There are a number of reasons why an individual would apply body modification, and although some modifications are not as acceptable as others, they aid in the development, exploration, acceptance, and search of one’s self. Individuals do this for a wide range of reasons, and for a lot of them, it helps them find their place, and can have positive effects, such as building confidence and being proud of who you are. There can also be a lot of negative effects in relation to body modification, for example body dysmorphic disorder. Through the study of motivation and emotion psychology, we are able to better understand the emotions behind body modification.

Quiz
Test your knowledge by completing this short multiple choice quiz.

{What is body modification? - Altering your appearance - The act of changing your body through piercings, scarification, etc. - Any method that permanently adorns the body. + All the above
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{Which option is not a type of body modification? - Spacing your ear lobes + Buying new clothes - Colouring your hair - Getting a tattoo
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{Which option is associated with body modification? - Bipolar disorder - Cystic Fibrosis + Body Dysmorphic disorder - Schizophrenia
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{What factors are involved with body modification? -For love of art - To create a personal narrative - Show affiliation or commitment + All the above
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