Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Chocolate eating motivation

Overview
As much as we would all love to deny it, chocolate holds a very special place in our hearts. There is no doubt that it can cure any sickness, and can make the worst day just that little bit better. There is something so alluring about it that keeps us coming back for more, and more ... and more. Is it simply the fact that it is a constant companion in times of need? Or is there a deeper rooted reason for our obsession with chocolate? The satisfaction of consuming chocolate is a unique one, which begs the question, is there a psychological explanation for the satisfaction we feel, and the cravings we get, for chocolate? Additionally, we ask the question, is there a healthy alternative to chocolate? Something that will make us equally satisfied, without the guilt that comes with consuming it?

What is it?
Every meal consumed, every day, has some sort of plant-based foundation. It is safe to say, however, that one of the most popular plant based foods is chocolate. The true name of chocolate is Cocoa, and the cocoa tree grows in tropical rainforests throughout the Americas. (Coe, M. 2006) This tree can be found growing underneath a canopy of higher trees. Flowers grow on the branches and smaller flowers grow up the trunk. Pods develop from these smaller flowers found on the trunk and within the pods are the cocoa beans. The beans must go through a rigorous procedure in order to extract the flavour we associate with chocolate. Firstly, the beans are fermented, they are then dried out, the third step is to roast the beans, and the final step includes winnowing and grinding the beans into cocoa powder. (Coe, M. 2006) It isn’t until the beans are roasted that they begin to taste like the flavour most commonly associated with chocolate.

Before chocolate became such a successful industry, the cocoa bean had a multitude of uses. Originally, it was used as currency and had various medicinal properties. The flowers, mentioned above, of a cocoa tree were used to help treat fatigue and the beans could be used to help ease fevers, panting of breath and to treat ‘the faint of heart’. (Dilinger, T.L et al,. 2000) Between the 16th and early 20th centuries the 3 most common uses of medicinal cocoa was to help unhealthily slim patients to gain weight, to stimulate the nervous system of exhausted patients and to help with digestion. (Dilinger, T.L et al,. 2000) Another very common, and arguably the most popular, use for the bean was to turn it into a paste and administer it to patients to make their medications taste better. (Dilinger, T.L et al,. 2000) It was from this use that the idea of producing chocolate stemmed. It was first introduced and made available in Europe and was a rare delicacy reserved for Nobles and people of the highest importance.



What effect does it have on a person?
When we think of addiction and addictive behaviour, more often than not, our attention would immediately turn to alcohol or drug addiction. However, it has been suggested that chocolate can evoke a similar behavioural reaction in susceptible people. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) Studies suggest that the fat, sugar, texture and aroma of chocolate can be factors that cause addiction or craving for some people. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) Chocolate can also be used to self-medicate for certain deficiencies, such as magnesium, and can also be used to balance dopamine and serotonin levels in the body, which are involved in the regulation of mood, food intake and compulsive behaviours (Bruinsma & Taren 1999). Chocolate cravings have also been seen as hormonal, and are generally more prominent in women at certain points of their menstrual cycle. It is evident, however, that very frequent consumption of large quantities of chocolate could have significant implications on the consumer’s health.

What is so alluring about it?
It is not unlikely that at some point, everyone has wondered what it is about chocolate that makes them feel so satisfied, and what keeps them coming back for more. It is unlikely, however, that they have considered that there are many factors that contribute to its allure. Both serotonin and dopamine play a prominent part in producing the feeling of satisfaction that comes with consuming chocolate. Both of these aspects of chocolate’s allure are expanded below. It is also evident that there is something about chocolate itself that lures the consumer back for more.

What is motivation?
The most basic definition of motivation seems to beg the question of why people do the things they do. What is the motivation that gives behaviour its energy, direction and endurance (Reeve, 2015) According to Reeve, 2015 the “study of motivation concerns those internal processes that give behaviour its energy, direction and persistence.” This implies that every behaviour, even the simplest ones, is being driven by a strength, purpose and persistence. (Reeve, 2015) Once we have been motivated to do a certain thing, and in achieving the task we were motivated to do, a sense of satisfaction can be felt. This feeling of satisfaction, or of happiness, is a feeling that the body naturally strives to replicate.

What are they?
A craving can be defined as an overwhelming desire, interest in or yearning for something, usually food. (Thescrutinizer.net, 2015) Studies conducted in North America indicated that chocolate is one of the most craved foods. (Thescrutinizer.net, 2015) Why is it that we crave chocolate above vegetables or fruits? Studies suggest that it is because chocolate contains psychologically active agents, such as theobromine, anandamide and phenylethalamine (Thescrutinizer.net, 2015). Craving is also due to the release of serotonin and dopamine in the body that occurs when foods high in carbohydrates are consumed.

Chocolate Cravings
There is something very unique about chocolate cravings, and there is no doubt that chocolate has a noteworthy effect on a lot of the population. Many studies have shown that if a consumer attempts to restrict chocolate intake in a bid to be healthy, it only increases their desire or craving for it. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) But what has left so many people baffled is that it has not yet been concluded as to how chocolate induces its drug like effects on consumers. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999)

Cravings can be defined as an intense, periodic motivation aimed at gaining the craved substance, such as chocolate, and studies have shown that chocolate cravings alone seem to exist in 40% of females and 15% of males. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) Though many explanations have been provided, the most widely believed and accepted theory is that its allure stems from the effects it has on the body, such as the release of dopamine. But multiple studies have shown that a large percentage of chocolate’s allure is a result of its taste, smell and texture. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) This is proven through the fact that, even when they have been provided with food that should have the same biological effect on the body, 75% of all chocolate cravers state that there is no substitute for chocolate. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999)It even seems that white chocolate can’t alleviate chocolate cravings. White chocolate contains cocoa butter and sugar, but it lack the traditional aroma and ingredients of chocolate. In a study, results showed that white chocolate doesn’t alleviate craving, it just temporarily reduces it. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999) Bruinsma & Taren, 1999 have come to the conclusion that it is a mixture of everything that makes chocolate so alluring, and keeps consumers coming back for more. They are of the opinion that the sensory reward of chocolate, shaped by physiological state and cognitive factors, is an exceptionally potent force and appears to be the predominant factor in the phenomenon of chocolate cravings. (Bruinsma & Taren 1999)

How are they satisfied?
Cravings act as motivation to find the certain food you are craving and act as a reminder that until you have consumed that specific type of food, you won’t be entirely satisfied. (Thescrutinizer.net, 2015) Some people are able to have a very small portion of the food they are craving and feel satisfied, however, others feel the need to binge on the food in order to gain any sort of satisfaction. This binge eating can subsequently lead to health issues such as weight gain, obesity and eating disorders. (Thescrutinizer.net, 2015) Suggested ways to deal with the craving are as follows:
 * To go for a walk – this is said to decrease chocolate cravings by occupying the mind and taking the body away from any temptation.
 * It is suggested that you only have a very small portion of the food you are craving, in hopes that this satisfies you.
 * Drink a glass of water – this can sometimes make you feel full, or even make you realise that you mistook hunger for thirst.
 * Eat a mint, chew some gum, brush your teeth – people are less likely to want to eat food with fresh or clean breath.
 * Give yourself a ‘wait’ period – wait 10 – 20 minutes before giving into your cravings. You may discover that you aren’t actually hungry at all, merely bored.

How does sugar play a part in our craving for chocolate?
TED-Ed How sugar affects the brain

Above, is a Ted Ed video that succinctly explains the effects that sugar can have on our brain and body. Unfortunately, in today’s society, sugar is in the majority of foods that we consume. The constant consumption of sugar not only negatively effects our body, but it also impacts our brain. Psychologists have compared sugar addiction to cocaine addiction, and claim that the same parts of the brain are impacted by the different addictions. It is quite confronting to think that we are feeding our body such an addictive product without knowing it. It is also evident in the way we often unsuccessfully stick to diets. Why is it that we break diets? More often than not, the answer to that question, is that we crave sugar. Whether that is through sweets and chocolates, or pizza and white bread. Cutting sugar from a diet after consuming such large quantities of it, sometimes unknowingly, results in the body going through withdrawal. This may lead to increased cravings, fatigue and headaches. Modern society has unknowingly become reliant on this ingredient and if something is not done to radically reduce it in foods, it could result in significantly increased health problems for the entire population, such as obesity, heart disease and diabetes.

Do women crave chocolate more during their menstrual cycle?
A study done by Pelchat, 1997 found that women tend to crave sweet foods, whilst men seem to crave foods that are savoury. (Zellner, Garriga-Trillo, Centeno & Wadsworth, 2004) Results have also indicated that the sweet that women crave above all others is chocolate, and these cravings can be significantly increased during certain times of their menstrual cycle. It was found by Rozin, Levine and Stoess, 1991 that women have more severe sweet cravings premenstrual. But due to the fact that these cravings often occur like clock-work, it has led many psychologists to question whether these cravings are purely psychological. (Zellner, Garriga-Trillo, Centeno & Wadsworth, 2004) In a study conducted by Michener and Rozin, 1994, chocolate was administered to participants in capsules, this meant that the aroma and taste of the chocolate could not be detected by the participant. It was found that the chocolate cravings of the participants were not at all satisfied by taking these capsules. These findings indicate that the allure of chocolate is not solely biological, it is not necessarily the serotonin or the release of dopamine that makes a consumer feel satisfies. The aroma, texture and taste of chocolate also play significant roles in the allure of chocolate, and therefore play significant roles in satisfying chocolate cravings. (Zellner, Garriga-Trillo, Centeno & Wadsworth, 2004)

What is it and what impact does it have on the body?
Sugar is killing us

Leptin is a vital hormone that sends messages to the brain, indicating that enough food has been consumed, and the body is now full. Leptin is manufactured by fat cells throughout the body and is then circulated in blood. Finally, it is detected and monitored by the ventromedial hypothalamus in the brain. (Reeve, 2015)

How does the consumption of chocolate impact it?
When the body consumes chocolate, and the copious amounts of sugar that comes with it, a barrier is unknowingly being put between the Leptin’s signals and the brain. When the body consumes too much sugar, the brain has a hard time receiving the message that the body has consumed enough food and it is time to stop. Thus, the body stays hungry for longer and consumes more food than necessary. So the simple solution would be to just cut down on the sugar, right? But that is easier said than done. As mentioned in the video above, over 80% of all food items in America have added sugar. Whilst this is not yet the case in Australia, there is no doubt it will soon be the case, due to the fact that there is sugar added to the majority of foods here as well, and it is only getting worse. This means that the signals being sent by Leptin are not always being received by the brain. If this is to happen on a regular basis, over a period of time, it can lead to significant weight gain and considerable health consequences.

What is it?
Serotonin is a form of neurotransmitter that can be found in the central nervous system and, depending on the balance of serotonin in the brain, it can affect our mood. (Jonassen & Landro, 2014) If the body’s serotonin levels are low, the more sad or depressed a person can be. On the other hand, the higher the serotonin levels in the body, the happier and more satisfied a person can be. (Deacon & Baird, 2009)

What is the relation between Chocolate and Serotonin?
Although chocolate is associated with the feeling of happiness and content that is a result from eating it, it is in fact the carbohydrates in the chocolate that creates the increased serotonin levels. Due to the fact that chocolate contains such a significant amount of carbohydrates, it leads to a considerable amount of serotonin being released, and in turn results in the consumer feeling satisfied. (Benton, 2002; Toress-Moreno et al., 2015)

What is it and what effect does it have on the body?
Dopamine is also a neurotransmitter, and it is closely associated with moods, as well as with cognitive skills. Dopamine works in conjunction with serotonin in that it maintains the moods that are a result of the released serotonin in the body’s system. (Zhao et al., 2015). However, unlike with serotonin, no direct relationship between dopamine and carbohydrate intake has been discovered. Instead, dopamine has a significant contribution to the body’s rewards system. When the body consumes something that is ‘good’, not necessarily healthy, then the body is rewarded by the feeling of satisfaction or happiness. Naturally, this satisfaction and happiness provides the body with motivation to replicate these feelings, by consuming the foods that produce this feeling, such as chocolate.

What is the relation between Chocolate and Dopamine?
The body can come to realise that through eating particular foods, certain feelings are produced. These feelings can be anticipated, and a reward for eating these foods can be expected. The body can anticipate a high release of dopamine when it feeds the body chocolate, as opposed to a low or no release when it receives broccoli. This is due to the spiked release of serotonin that can be expected upon consuming chocolate.

What are healthy alternatives that will satisfy chocolate cravings?
To get healthy and fit means that chocolate either needs to be cut or significantly reduced from the diet. But is there really a substitute for chocolate? A way cravings can be satisfied, without the added guilt of consuming it? Some solutions that have been proven to work for certain people are as follows:
 * If worst comes to worst, compromise with a little bit of dark chocolate. It won’t result in such a high level of serotonin and dopamine release due to the significantly lower number of carbohydrates. Unfortunately, that means that dark chocolate with any additives, such as fruits, nuts and caramel doesn’t count, and needs to be avoided.
 * Cocoa Powder – Cocoa powder doesn’t have the additives that chocolate does, and is therefore a much healthier option. Adding a teaspoon of this to a drink, or making healthy snacks with it, is an easy way to get the flavour of chocolate, whilst avoiding the unhealthy side effects of it.
 * Moderation! It is probably the worst advice that could possibly be given, because who can actually control themselves around chocolate, but any chocolate in moderation is fine. It provides the taste and the release of serotonin and dopamine that truly provide the feeling of satisfaction and happiness.
 * Exercise – it is a well-known fact that exercising results in the feeling of accomplishment, and satisfaction. It is for health reasons that copious amounts of chocolate should not be consumed, so a healthy alternative like this is an optimal solution. Exercise releases a very large amount of dopamine, so whilst the serotonin release that occurs when eating chocolate is not evident when a person exercises, the released dopamine more than makes up for it. Dopamine is what essentially influences our moods and feelings, and such a high release of it is bound to leave a person feeling very satisfied, accomplished, and most importantly, healthy.

Unfortunately, it is a small majority that can successfully curb their cravings for chocolate, so until the allure of chocolate can really be explained, we are all at its mercy.

Conclusion
Chocolate can be addictive for susceptible people. This addiction can lead to potentially severe cravings for chocolate. These cravings are caused by the biological factors that occur upon consuming chocolate, as well as the unique taste, texture and smell it provides. Hormones can also impact these cravings, especially in relation to women. As a result of many studies conducted, it was found that women have stronger cravings, particularly for chocolate, depending on where they were in their menstrual cycle. These cravings, an overwhelming desire, interest in or yearning for something, provide the consumer with the motivation to find the substance they crave. Motivation is the internal processes that give behaviour its energy, direction and persistence. Thus, the overwhelming desire to consume chocolate is the driving factor that motivates a person to consume chocolate, and the overwhelming reward they receive as a result is also motivation to repeat the action. There have been suggested ways to resist these cravings, such as going for a walk, having a small portion of the desired food, drinking water, chewing gum and waiting 10-20 minutes to see if the cravings subdue.

Sugar, leptin, dopamine and serotonin also play significant roles in the craving of chocolate. Sugar is a highly addictive product, and is unfortunately found in the majority of foods at the super market. This means it is very hard to avoid. Modern society has unknowingly become reliant on this product and if something is not done to radically reduce the accessibility of it, then serious health implications are inevitable for the entire population. Leptin is a hormone that sends messages to the brain, indicating that enough food has been consumed and it is time to stop. However, when too much sugar has been consumed, perhaps through chocolate, then barriers are put between the Leptin’s signals and the brain, therefore blocking the message that the body has consumed enough. Thus resulting in a person being hungrier for longer and consuming more food than necessary, which can eventually lead to considerable health issues. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that can affect a person’s mood. The more serotonin in the body, the happier the person is, and the lower the level the more depressed they can be. Serotonin is released when the body consumes carbohydrates. Due to the fact that there is such a large number of carbohydrates in chocolate, it often results in a large release of serotonin, leaving the consumer very satisfied. Finally, dopamine, also a neurotransmitter, works in conjunction with serotonin, in that it maintains the moods that are a result of the released serotonin. However, as can be expected, frequent consumption of chocolate, over longer periods of time, can result in the development of significant health problems, such as obesity and diabetes.

The motivation to continue eating chocolate stems from the complete feeling of happiness and satisfaction that comes with consuming it. The release of serotonin and dopamine combined with the unique taste, texture, and aroma of chocolate, as well as the added sugar, results in significant cravings for it. The body’s motivation to continue to fulfil the demands of the cravings, is the reward that it receives upon consuming the chocolate. These rewards include the feelings of satisfaction, happiness and utter peace. These are the driving forces that motivate consumers to come back for more, and more…and more.