Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Nootropics and motivation

Overview
Caffeine, Adderall, Ritalin, Dexedrine, Modafilin and amphetamines have become some of the most popular drugs among students and professionals to enhance their performance (drugs.com, 2015). Originally, these types of drugs are prescribed to treat things such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or sleeping disorders (excluding caffeine). Although it is not legal in Australia for people to get these drugs without a prescription, many students and professionals manage to get a prescription, buy them from people who have a prescription, or buy them from other countries where they are not illegal. When these drugs are taken without a prescription and used for non-medical reasons they are referred to as ‘smart drugs’, ‘study drugs’, or ‘nootropics’. Scientists refer to them as ‘cognitive enhancers’. These drugs are all known to differently affect a person’s focus, concentration and memory, which in tern affect a person’s motivation for study. Although taking these stimulants without a prescription can be dangerous, studies have found that one in five college students take them to boost their short-term memory and to help them stay up for all nighters.

People who illegally take these smart drugs generally take them for two reasons; to enhance cognition (attention, memory, executive functions) or to enhance motivation (Bass et al, 2014). The term motivation refers to a similarly broad set of affective states that influence whether a person will voluntarily use their cognitive ability. This is made up multiple factors that contribute to task motivation; wanting to complete a task, enjoying it or being interested in it. Motivation is also supported by close related factors such as positive mood, alertness, energy and the absence of anxiety (Cherry, 2015). This book chapter will provide information about the many different types of stimulants students are using and it will explore how the use of ‘smart drugs’ effect student’s motivation towards study.

Universities in Australia
Unfortunately in Australia there is very little known information on the usage of study drugs, however there is evidence it does take place. One of Australia’s only study into academic doping found Australian university students appear to be using the study drug more than it is used in the United States and Germany (Worthington, 2013). According to this study, Ritalin is the most commonly used drug. In 2013 the UNSW found that 8.5% of university students have used a study drug at one point (Widijanto, 2014). 15.3% of students using amphetamines (e.g., Ritalin) said they only used it for studying purposes and around 50% of the students reported using cognitive enhancing drugs (eg. Modafilin) for studying only (Widijanto, 2014).

The reasoning for Australian students taking study drugs appears to be for the short-term effects (eg. concentration, mood & motivation) rather than the long-term outcomes (eg. higher grades) (Singh, Bard & Jackson, 2014). It is believed that students today are turning to the study drug because the pressure on a modern day student is high demand with juggling both work and study. Although ethically it is believed a study drug should not be taken for non-medical reasons, if a student needs to pull an all-nighter to finish their work or to stay up to date, is it wrong to punish that?

Universities Globally
Although there is very limited Australian research on students using the study drug, globally there is a lot of research. In the US it is estimated that between 5% and 35% of university students have experimented with study drugs (Rahimi-Movaghar et al, 2011). A recent study has found that 42% of students with out a needed prescription has used the stimulant drugs at some stage. With some of the students being as young as 8th grade (4.9%) and but majority being collage students (25%) (Rahimi-Movaghar et al, 2011).

Table 1 shows the results from a survey conducted by Singh, Bard & Jackson (2014) on the pharmacological cognitive enhancement among university students in the UK. It shows the motivations for taking caffeine pills, Adderall, Ritalin and Modafilin (note: respondents could select more than one purpose for each drug).

Table 1.

Task Motivation
Most literature is investigating the cognitive effects a study drug can have on a person. However, according to students who use stimulants for cognitive enhancement, these drugs may enable better performance of cognitively demanding work at least in part through their effects on motivation. Task motivation is one of the most appealing parts of using a study drug. It can motivate you to do things that you have been putting off or haven’t wanted to do. It makes tasks that usually aren’t enjoyable more pleasurable, most people that use it find boring tasks more interesting.

In surveys conducted to students about reasons for using stimulants, the responses words such energy and alertness have very high response rates. DeSantis et al. (2008) directed one of their items directly to motivational effects in relation to schoolwork; ‘to make studying more interesting’ in their list of reasons and found 58% of their respondents endorsed these items. Table 2 shows data that supports the idea that enhancement users rely on ADHD medication for boosting drive, energy, and mood, rather than cognitive capacity alone.

Table 2.

Caffeine Pills
Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant. It is used for mental alertness or wakefulness when you are experiencing fatigue or drowsiness (Brain, Bryant & Cunningham, 2000). Caffeine is the most commonly consumed psychoactive drug that is legal for anyone to buy without a prescription. The most common side effects can include irritability, restlessness, and insomnia and heart palpitations (Brain, Bryant & Cunningham, 2000).

Adderall
Adderall is defined as a “single-entity amphetamine product combining the neutral sulfate salts of dextroamphetamine and amphetamine, with the dextro isomer of amphetamine saccharate and d, I-amohetamine aspartate” (Drugs.com., 2015). It is used to treat individuals with ADHD and Narcolepsy. It works by stimulating the production of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, which enhances concentration. When someone without ADHD takes Adderall, their brain is over stimulated, which creates them to experience super-enhanced focus. This is what attracts students and working into taking this ‘smart drug’.

Due to the easy accessibility of Adderall and the fact that many students use it without having a prescription, it is difficult if not impossible to understand its true impact on education. However studies have provided clear evidence that is does enhance focus and concentration. Ilieve, Boland & Farah (2012) conducted a study that found Adderall only has small effects on cognition in healthy young adults. So they questioned why students continued to keep illegally taking these drugs. It could be that even that small cognitive advantage is useful in these situations. Or it could be that the individual differences result in sizeable cognitive advantages for some users. Alternatively, users may be gaining a non-cognitive advantage that helps them perform better in school or on the job. This is where the study of motivation started to advance.

To understand the reasoning for students taking stimulants {{grammar}] Vrecko (2013), used a open-ended interview with 24 university students who identified as users of Adderall for academic enhancement. The two most popular motivational states that were highlighted positive were mood and energy. These students reported that they didn’t want to stop what they were doing until it was completed up to a certain level of satisfaction and that they were interested in what they were doing when normally they would find it boring (Vrecko, 2013). These results suggest that students taking Adderall will have enhanced motivational functions.

Stolz (2012) study has found that students who take Adderall consistently perform better on exams and in school. Since the difference in grade distribution and exam scores were significantly different between uses and non-users, it is said they are effectively cheating as the users have better results (Stolz, 2012).

Ritalin
Ritalin, most commonly known as methylphenidate, is a central nervous system stimulant. It affects chemicals in the brain and nerves that contribute hyperactivity and impulse control (drugs.com, 2015). Like Aderrall, Ritalin is also used to treat ADHD and sleep disorders. The main difference between Adderall and Ritalin is that Adderall makes the cells pump out more neurotransmitters and Adderrall is active for four to six hours and Ritalin only two to three. One study found that when ritalin was taken, subjects rated a mathematical task more interesting and produced a disproportionate striatal dopamine release when maths was performed with the drug, compared to no math or no drug (Volkow et al, 2004).

Dexedrine
Dexedrine (Dextroamphetamine), like Adderall and Ritalin, is used to treat ADHD in children and also to treat sleep disorders. It is still unknown how it actually works but it affects certain chemicals in the brain, which may help to improve attention span and behaviour (Bradley, 1950). It is a psychostimulant that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus while decreasing fatigue and appetite. Clinically it can be prescribed for weight loss, depression, fatigue, and concentration problems and for nightshift workers. Reports have found that Dexedrine is being illicitly used for the feeling of euphoria and also for a study drug. Dexedrine can produce withdrawal that can last up to four days such as mental fatigue, mental depression and an increased appetite (Bradley, 1950).

Modafinil
Modafinil, also known as Provigil, is a stimulant that increases wakefulness, memory and positively lifts mood. It is a mixture of two isomers (R-modafilin and S-modafilin). It does this by increasing dopamine availability in the brain for 15-20 hours. Medically it is used to treat people with sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, shift-work sleep disorder and sleep apnea. The US military and astronauts on the international space station are also known to use modafilin (Caldwell et al, 2000).

Modafinil was created in a French laboratory in the late 1970s and was licensed for use in the UK as a narcolepsy medication in 2002. In the US, that was extended to include excessive daytime sleepiness and shift work sleep disorder (Caldwell et al, 2000). It apes some of the effects of classic stimulants such as amphetamines but without the classic stimulant side-effects: jitters, anxiety and so on. It’s not considered addictive, but some studies have shown that it appears to increase dopamine in the brain’s reward centre, which has been correlated with addictive behaviours (Muller, 2013).

The main improvement modafilin has on a normal person is task enjoyment, planning and working memory. Alongside these improvements, the actual performance on tasks is improved by a significant increase in motivation and enjoyment for undergoing the task. Basically the only general side effects from modafilin include insomnia and sleepnessess. Which when studying is what a student may be looking for. The other minor side effects that only occur to some people are headaches and a reduction in appetite (Muller, 2013).

Table 3 shows the Human Effect Matrix (Buguet, 2015), which looks at human studies to tell you the effects modafilin has on the human body and how strong these effects are. Although these are not all the effects, the ones listed are the ones that make Modafilin so appealing. They are all perfect examples of how a students motivation to study would be improved when taking Modafilin.

Table 3.

Amphetamine
Amphetamine is a stimulant and also an appetite suppressant. It works by increasing the amount of certain chemical in the body by stimulating the central nervous system. It is used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy however it used to be prescribed for weight loss. A medical prescription is required to legally purchase amphetamine.

Amphetamine increased the proportion of high reward/high effort choices. These results imply that amphetamine may enhance the motivation to work for uncertain rewards where the lack of guarantee of reward would be expected to tax motivation maximally (Wardle et al., 2011). Wardle and de Wit (2012) conducted a study to see how amphetamine effects task enjoyment. The experiment was conducted with healthy normal subjects who were shown pictures from the international affective pictures set and asked to rate their reactions to the stimuli in terms of emotional valence and a degree if arousal. The results found that when the participants had taken the drug their enjoyment of all the pictures was increased. Other research has found when an amphetamine is taken, participants chose to combine amphetamine with an attention task but not with a relaxation task (Volkow et al, 2004).

Amphetamines are known to be taken by workers in irregular jobs, such as construction, the fishing industry, transport or cleaning firms (University of Oslo, 2015). A university study questioned users and they explained that one of the things that makes it so appealing is that its not so easy to discover that someone is using it (University of Oslo, 2015). Not only is amphetamines secret and effective but it is also cheap and it is often known as ‘the poor mans cocaine’ (University of Oslo, 2015). Other users explained that they use amphetamines so they can take on two extra jobs.

Self-Determination Theory
The self-determination theory was initially developed by Edward, L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan. This theory suggest that people are generally driven by a need to grow and gain fulfilment (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The first assumption of this theory is that people are actively directed towards growth. Self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation, known as intrinsic motivation (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). For example, a need to gain knowledge or independence. There are three achievements that are needed to achieve such psychological growth; competence, relatedness and autonomous.
 * Competence- this is the desire to control and master the environment and outcome
 * Relatedness- this is the desire to “interact with, be connected to, and experience caring for other people”.
 * Automony- this is the urge to be casual agents and to act in harmony with their integrated self.

Table

Maslow's Theory of Motivation - Hierarchy of needs
Maslow (1943) believed that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and once one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one and so on. This theory consists of a five stage model which is divided into basic needs and growth needs. Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied.

Real experiences
Here are a list of quotes from people who have used a study drug. They describe either their experiences or their motivations.


 * “Everyone is competing against each other for scholarships and it definitely gives you an extra edge over students who don't take it. As much as I was initally against Adderall, I cannot deny the fact that it's completely effective.” - Female, 16, Minneapolis (New York Times, 2015).
 * “...the immense pressure put on students by parents and educators has made taking speed a socially acceptable thing.” Male, 20, Los Angeles (New York Times, 2015).
 * “The thing that I found the most frustrating was that their use of ‘study drugs’ actually worked and some were rewarded for it.” Female, 20, Dallas (New York Times, 2015).
 * “ It seemed that if there was a high, it came in the form of a subtle invincibility – not only was my brain working at a faster speed, but I felt no inclination to question what it produced. I got a higher score on the final than I had on any of the tests. ” - Male, 19, New York City (New York Times, 2015).
 * “I was thinking faster, harder, there was no fog- and nothing could distract me” – Male 18, Wynnewood (New York Times, 2015).
 * “The focus and motivation while on Modafinil is unlike anything I’ve ever experienced… My mind is operating on all cylinders. I’m clear minded and recall memories easily… I would describe the energy boost as more of a feeling of being awake and well-rested, not super energized…. It’s smooth, consistent and predictable.  Exactly what I want.” – Stout (Stout, 2014).
 * “Career-wise Modafinil has let me work at my best at any hour of the day. I’m inquisitive, I’ll dig, I’ll write great things. It makes any time of the day high performance. I don’t have the ‘I am a great golden god’ feeling but I feel good all the time.” – Dave Asprey (Asprey, 2011).

Conclusion
Many students in Australia and all around the world use one or more of the many study drugs currently available. It is clear that using a study drug has great benefits in many ways, particularly in dramatically enhancing a person’s motivation towards tasks. Modafinil seems to be the chosen drug with the most benefits and the least negative side effects and evidence suggests it will be becoming more and more popular. With the ability of drugs to enhance responses to emotional stimuli this may contribute to drug use and abuse by making positive unconditioned or conditioned stimuli more attractive. Evidence has proven that using a study drug can reduce fatigue and significantly enhance memory, alertness, attention, cognition and motivation. These are all big factors that lead towards a student having better motivation for study. Other evidence has also shown that the top motivations for using a study drug are because it helps people to concentrate, it helps them study and it helps increase alertness. Theories of motivation that were address are the self-determination theory and Maslow's theory of motivation. From the research and literature explored there is clear evidence that the effect of smart drugs on motivations for study are mostly positive. Due to not much current study being available there is no real evidence of the long-term effects these stimulants can have therefore the negative side effects known are minimal.