Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Punctuality motivation

Overview
''Peter prefers to arrive early rather than right on time. He does not like to be late. Being late can make him quite agitated, particularly when factors other than situational ones (eg. a traffic jam or delayed train) are not the cause of his lateness. Erin, on the other hand, is chronically late. She struggles daily to arrive at work and university on time. It is expected by those who know her that she will not be on time to a scheduled event. While Erin is not always comfortable with being late, it does not cause her the same agitation that it causes Peter.''

''What differences exist between Peter and Erin that determine their punctuality (or lack of)? What are the motivational agents at play that ensure that Peter is always early, and that Erin is consistently late?''

This book chapter will seek to answer the questions 'what factors influence punctuality?', and 'what motivates people to be on time?'

As a side note, Erin is Peter's daughter, and so has been the cause of much of Peter's lateness and agitation.

What is punctuality?
Punctuality can be defined as the quality or habit of adhering to an appointed time, or the ability of individuals to coordinate time. It can be associated with promptness, readiness and regularity, and can be seen as one of the crucial ingredients of modern life (WordNet 3.0, 2008; Basu & Weibull, 2002). Being on time is noted as necessary in developing and maintaining satisfying relationships with others, structuring one’s life, and being successful on the job (Back, Schmukle & Egloff, 2005). A person’s punctuality is also noted to make life easier for those who they interact with (Basu & Weibull, 2002). The opposite of punctuality is tardiness, the quality or habit of not adhering to the correct, usual or expected time (WordNet 3.0, 2008).

Some varying quotations about punctuality (Collins, 2015):"'Punctuality is the politeness of kings' - Louis XVII""'I am always late on principle, my principle being that punctuality is the thief of time' - Oscar Wilde""'Punctuality is the virtue of the bored' - Evelyn Waugh""'The habit of being prompt once formed extends to everything - meeting friends, paying debts, going to church, reaching and leaving place of business, keeping promises, retiring at night and rising in the morning, going to a lecture and town meeting, and, indeed, to every relation and act, however trivial it may seem to observers.' - William Makepeace Thayer (Thayer, 1882, p. 224)"

Personality


While there are many situational factors that influence the time that people arrive at a specific meeting, we all know people who are seemingly regularly late (see Figure 1), others who are at all times waiting, and some who are always just in time. We can also adjust to someone's assumed lack of punctuality, for example, we make an appointment for 12pm if we want to meet that person at 1pm. Consequently, individuals tend to have a stable tendency to be early, on time or late, regardless of the occasion, and we are aware of each other's punctuality (Back et al., 2005; Richard & Slane 1990). Punctuality is a persistent personality characteristic that can be measured (Kanekar & Vaz, 1993). Who is prone to be late and who tends to be punctual or even early? Which personality traits determine this relevant daily social behaviour?

A common categorisation of personality is the five-factor model of personality, where variations in behaviour are interpreted in terms of five personality dimensions. Research has shown that three factors of the Big Five are relevant with regard to punctuality behaviour: conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism (Back et al., 2005).

People with a high degree of conscientiousness are predisposed to actively manage their goals, to be organised, dependable, dutiful, orderly, self-confident, self-disciplined and deliberate. Accordingly, a conscientious person should have the ability and motivation to appear on time in different situations, whereas less conscientious people should not. Research suggests that conscientiousness plays a role with regard to all aspects of punctuality. A study conducted that was investigating the influence of personality dispositions on the time one arrived at a meeting was able to predict the arrival time of the individuals, as well as the degree of earliness or lateness that they arrived (Back et al., 2005). Earlier arriving individuals were typically more conscientious (Werner, Geisler & Randler, 2014). So how do conscientious people manage to be punctual? They are self-organised and self-disciplined enough that they do not forget their appointments, and are able to actively carry out subordinate goals - to get up early, to catch the bus, to find the room, etc. As a consequence, they generally arrive earlier at a meeting than those who are less conscientious. Even if they are delayed, they tend to be dutiful enough to try to minimise the degree of lateness. As conscientious people are able to consider external factors, such as a delayed bus, they will be earlier in circumstances where caution would not have been necessary (Back et al., 2005). It is also suggested that high-conscientious people and employees engage in constructive behaviour such as arriving early to work or appointments, and avoid destructive behaviours such as arriving late, an action that may lead to losing your job (Bowling & Burns 2010). However, Werner et al. (2014) maintains that punctuality could be viewed as a component of conscientiousness rather than as a result of conscientiousness.

People with a high degree of agreeableness possess traits such as trust, straightforwardness, altruism, cooperativeness, courtesy, compliance, modesty and tender-mindedness. Agreeableness is associated with punctuality in settings where other people are involved and are relying on the arrival of the person, as they are sensitive to the needs of others and so do not like to keep others waiting (Back et al., 2005). In other studies conducted where a meeting was not relying on the arrival of the individual to start (such as a university lecture), agreeableness was not found to predict punctuality (Werner et al., 2014).

People high in neuroticism are very sensitive to, and tend to destabilise, under stress. They are described as anxious, depressive, unsure of themselves, impulsive, vulnerable, nervous and irritable. To be late to a meeting is probably a very uncomfortable situation for anxious, over-cautious, self-conscious individuals, as they may stand out and be criticised. Therefore, neurotic people will do more to be on time and so prevent social criticism or attention drawn to them than less neurotic people. Research has shown that individuals high in neuroticism have a higher overpromptness, arriving at a meeting earlier than less neurotic individuals. Again, however, the relationship between neuroticism and punctuality may not be high in instances where no attention would be drawn to the latecomer (such as slipping into the back of the room during a university lecture) (Back et al., 2005). Research has also shown a link between lateness and anxiety, where punctual individuals have reported lower levels of anxiety than those who are late, with latecomers reporting higher depression and trait anxiety levels. This can be seen to relate to an individual's neuroticism, but as there appears to be a definite link between anxiety and punctuality, further research is needed to determine the exact relationship (Richard & Slane, 1990).

The extent to which a person is morning-oriented or evening-oriented is also considered a stable personality trait that relates to punctuality. Morningness-eveningness (M/E) is defined as a preference for a given time of day for intellectual and physical performance, coupled with preferences for given wake and sleep times (also known as owl/lark). In a study conducted at a university, categorical analyses revealed that students who arrived early to class tended to be morning types and those who arrived late to be evening types. M/E has been related to some personality variables, with conscientiousness shown to be related to morningness. In the study conducted, both morning-oriented and conscientious students were more punctual, with the influence of M/E being higher than the influence of conscientiousness, suggesting that M/E is a more important predictor (Werner et al. 2014).

Research has shown that personality does influence punctuality. Although there are often situational factors that determine punctuality, stable individual differences also have an influence. It is not only the train (or whatever environmental factor) that is responsible, but also the person themselves that is late due to certain characteristics of their personality (Back et al., 2005).

"Quick punctuality personality quiz:" {Are you unable to understand how some people are late time and time again? + Yes. - No.
 * type=""}
 * You may be high on the conscientious scale.
 * You may have a low degree of conscientious.

{Would the notion of keeping others waiting invoke a greater motivational effort for you to be on time? + Yes. - No.
 * type=""}
 * You may be high on the agreeablessness scale.
 * You may have a low degree of agreeablessness.

{Do you arrive early at a meeting to avoid possible social criticism of being late? + Yes. - No.
 * type=""}
 * You may be high on the neuroticism scale.
 * You may be low in neuroticism.

Cultural values of time


"'I daresay their kind don't set much store by punctuality.' - Uncle Vernon Dursley, as he waits for a family of wizards to arrive, in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (Rowling, 2000, p. 42)."

Punctuality, however, is not entirely an individual trait, it is also a shared trait within cultures, where norms of punctuality vary across cultures (Basu & Weibull, 2002). As Kanekar & Vaz (1993) state, there are obvious cross-cultural differences in punctuality and pace of life. Within a Western society, it is part of most workplace's culture that people turn up on time and try to meet deadlines and time targets, but this concept of time and punctuality is not universal (Mountain, 2012). As Macduff (2009) argues, time is a social construct that has meaning and symbolic significance, as well as being a formal measurement of events. As more and more people in the world acquire time-keeping devices, it becomes increasingly possible to observe whether someone has arrived on time for an appointment. But what is the meaning of 'on time'? Is a dinner guest inappropriately early if they arrive fifteen minutes before the dinner was scheduled? Is a student inappropriately late if they arrive five minutes after the class officially begins, or half an hour? The answers to these questions depend largely on local norms (White, Valk & Dialmy, 2011). Arriving early to a dinner in Mexico City may embarrass an unprepared host. Arriving five minutes late to a class is generally accepted in Australia, but not in Switzerland, and arriving half an hour late to work or a social gathering would be the norm in Kenya (Engle, 2005).

Intercultural studies have defined differences in the perception and uses of time among countries as polychronic and monochronic. A polychronic perception of time is one in which events are not sharply or sequentially distinguished from each other, and multiple events can be seen as occurring at the same time. A more fluid approach is taken to the scheduling of time, where puntuality is not placed above relationships. Latin America, South Asia, Africa and Arab cultures have polychronic systems of time (MacDuff, 2009). A monochronic perception of time, on the other hand, analytically separates and sequences events, where time is scheduled, arranged and managed. Clearer distinctions tend to be drawn between leisure and formal or institutional time. Time urgency is associated more with individualistic societies, as time may be compressed by a greater urgency of deadlines and obligations (MacDuff, 2009). Research suggests that individuals in more highly developed societies possess less flexible definitions of what 'on time' is, reflecting the monochronic nature of their perception of time and punctuality. In these societies the narrow 'on time' windows may be an adaptive response to living in a fast-paced society in which time has become a commodity that should not be wasted, however, this view of time also increases the likelihood of higher stress and burn out levels (MacDuff, 2009). As Francis-Smythe & Robertson (1999) assert, workers in monochronic societies often become so committed to their work that families and others become residual claimants of their time.

As White et al. (2011) maintain, although values of time and punctuality are shared cultural aspects, large individual differences in personal definitions of punctuality are still found within each country, reflecting the influence that personality also has on punctuality. However, those scheduling appointments in intercultural settings are well-advised to be aware of the difference between their own perceptions of punctuality and those of others (MacDuff, 2009). With reference to the quote at the start of this section, Vernon Dursley fails to acknowledge the possibility that wizards may be as punctual as anyone else but simply have a different understanding of the meaning of 'on time' (White et al., 2011).

Theory: What motivates people to be on time?
The following theoretical constructs will be examined with regard to what motivates punctuality.

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
 If there was no obligation for you to be on time (ie. no external pressures or expectancies), would it still be important to you?

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) distinguishes between types of motivation based on the different reasons or goals that generate action. The most basic distinction within SDT is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable. When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed as opposed to external pressures or rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it leads to an independent outcome, for instance, arriving on time to work can help in keeping your job. Extrinsic motivation is in play when a task in not inherently interesting and so we rely on external or outside factors to motivate us. For example, tying your shoes is not particularly interesting in itself, it is a mundane, everyday task, but it results in not tripping over, which is a good enough incentive for us to do our laces. Within schools, teachers use grades, stickers, praise, privileges and threats of failure or punishment to extrinsically motivate their students. At work, employers use paychecks, bonuses, surveillance, competitions and threats of termination to motivate their employees (see figure 4). Our behaviour is extrinsically motivated whenever we act to gain a high academic grade, win a trophy, make a quota, impress our peers, or beat a deadline. It is the presence of incentives and consequences that create a sense of wanting within us to engage in those behaviours. Therefore, extrinsic motivation is an environmentally created reason to initiate and/or persist with an action (Reeve, 2015).

Naturally, people are intrinsically motivated for some activities and not others. Those activities that are intrinsically motivated are ones that provide satisfaction of innate psychological needs, these being autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Psychological need for autonomy
Our psychological need for autonomy reflects the notion that we desire choice and decision-making flexibility when deciding what to do. We want to decide and determine our own actions, rather than have someone coerce or force us into a particular course of action. Autonomy is the psychological need to experience self-direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation of one's behaviour (Reeve, 2015). Our need for autonomy is undermined when an outside source takes our sense of choice away, instead pressuring us to think, feel or behave in a particular way. For some, punctuality may be viewed as more intrinsic to their way of life, and therefore more autonomous. Punctuality may be intrinsic to the culture or society one is living in, or to the individual themselves who perceives it to be integral to who they are, or possibly both.

 Are we intrinsically motivated to be punctual? Do we feel it is our choice whether we are punctual or not? Do society's expectations of punctuality undermine our need for autonomy?

Psychological need for competence
Our psychological need for competence refers to the idea that everyone wants and strives to be competent in the activities they perform. Everyone desires to interact effectively with their surroundings, and in all aspects of life, from school, to work, in relationships and recreational activities. Competence is the psychological need to be effective in interactions with the environment, while also reflecting the desire to exercise and extend personal capacities and skills, to seek out and master optimal and developmentally appropriate challenges (Reeve, 2015). When people fail to arrive at an appointment on time they may feel as though they are incompetent, particularly if one is continually late. It is the desire to satisfy our psychological need for competence that may provide the motivational agent to be on time and improve punctuality in future, and to avoid feeling incompetent. For those whose personalities do not align with punctuality (ie. who are not highly conscientious, agreeable or neurotic), the challenge of being on time consistently, or even occasionally, may be too difficult. Attempts made by individuals who regularly struggle to be punctual may diminish the person's felt competence, if the task is not achieved. For those whose personalities do align with punctuality, the competence felt by consistently and successfully managing to be punctual may be part of their everyday functioning, and, of course, stem from intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

As punctuality may not be perceived as intrinsically interesting or motivating, a central question revolves around how to motivate tardy individuals or those lacking punctuality to value and self-regulate being on time. To satisfy the need for autonomy this motivation must stem without external pressures, instead fostering the internalisation and integration of the values and behavioural regulations of punctuality. People must experience satisfaction of the needs for both autonomy and competence for a high level of intrinsic motivation, and, as research has shown, the quality of experience and performance can vary dramatically when an individual is behaving for intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic reasons (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As Reeve (2015) asserts, the reason why a person adopts a goal matters, as goals adopted for external reason (e.g., social pressure, social obligation, social expectations) or internal pressures (e.g., doing what one should or ought to do) leave inner motivational resources untapped. SDT proposes that there are varied types of extrinsic motivation, ranging from impoverished forms of motivation to active, agentic states. For instance, students can perform extrinsically motivated actions with resentment, resistance and disinterest, or alternatively, with an attitude of willingness that may reflect an inner acceptance of the value or utility of a task (Ryan & Deci, 2000). One can feel externally pushed into action, or feel that the goal is somewhat self-endorsed and adopted with a sense of choice. Some may feel only compliance with society norms in being punctual, some may seek to be on time to gain the approval of others, others may consciously value being on time, while for others being punctual may be wholly integrated with who they are (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These variations of extrinsic motivation again reflect the differing personality factors that influence varying perceptions of and commitments to punctuality.

Discrepancy
 I am late again! I so, so wish just once I could be on time!

Another motivational theory that can relate to punctuality is discrepancy. This theory consists of an incongruity between a present state and an ideal state. The present state represents a person's current status of how life is going, and the ideal state represents how the person wishes life was going. With regard to punctuality, as in the box above, the present state would see that the person was running late, and the ideal state would be the desire to be on time or early. When the present state does not meet the hoped for ideal state, a discrepancy is exposed. The discrepancy creates the sense of wanting to change the present state so that it will move closer toward the ideal state. The discrepancy is what has motivational properties, and as this theory asserts, the discrepancy between being late and wanting to be on time creates the motivation to change the present state to meet the ideal state, possibly by changing tactics undertaken when getting ready for an appointment (e.g., changing the clock to show five minutes later than the actual time) (Reeve, 2015).

Conclusion
This chapter has discussed how personality and cultural values of time influence punctuality. A person high in conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism is more likely to be punctual and to have internalised values of punctuality than those who do not score highly on those variables or perceive punctuality to be integral to their self. It can be inferred that as a person high in conscientiousness manages to regularly be punctual, that these characteristics also extend to their management of time. Furthering this notion, it can be asserted that those who are often tardy also possess poor time management skills. One's cultural perception of time also impacts punctuality, with norms of what is perceived as 'on time' varying considerably between cultures. This highlights the socio-cultural nature of punctuality, while also specifying great individual differences with regard to punctuality within cultures and societies. The motivational theories of Self-Determination Theory, with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and discrepancy have been put forward as motivators of punctuality. While intrinsic motivation is valued more highly with regard to performance and achievement, it may only be possible in those who see punctuality as integral to who they are. This is as the individual's psychological needs for autonomy and competence will be satisfied when on time, as they feel that they have determined their punctuality, and feel competent in doing so. Discrepancy between a present state, being late, and an ideal state of being early or on time can also provide a motivational agent for punctuality.

People can improve their punctuality by further internalising their society's punctuality norms, as this will, if not increase intrinsic motivation, may achieve a more internal level of extrinsic motivation toward punctuality, seeking to satisfy needs of autonomy and competence. They can also seek to improve their punctuality by acting on the motivational agency of the discrepancy that they feel when they are late and desire to be early. This could include instigating changes such as altering the time on alarm clocks, allowing extra time for getting ready before appointments, and the potential to satisfy the psychological need for competence, as may happen when punctuality is achieved.