Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Workaholism motivation

Overview
What defines workaholism? What effects does it have on our health and general well-being, and, most importantly, why do people become workaholics in the first place?

Have you ever considered why people are workaholics? What drives them to work so hard on things? Perhaps you've caught yourself pulling your third all-nighter in a row one too many times and wondered "just why am I doing this?".

If so, then this chapter may be for you. The inner workings behind workaholism will be explored, including what exactly it means to be a workaholic, the negative (or positive?) effects it can have on health and well-being, the motivations behind workaholism and what can be done about it.


 * What is the definition of workaholism?
 * How does workaholism differ from simply working hard?
 * How does workaholism affect people, both physically and mentally?
 * How does it affect inter-personal relationships?
 * What is the motivational theory behind why people become workaholics?
 * How can workaholism be prevented?

Definition of workaholism
The term "workaholic" was first introduced in Wayne Oates' 1971 book, Confessions of a Workaholic. However, for nearly 20 years after his books was published, there was still no clear consensus on what the term actually meant. Some authors stated that anyone who works for over 50 hours a week could be defined as a workaholic (Mosier, 1983), while other claimed that it was one's attitude towards working that determined their workaholic status (Machlowitz, 1977). Authors were even split on whether workaholism was inherently a bad thing - Oates himself chose to define workaholism as a negative attribute, and focused solely upon the adverse effects it has. Other writers on the subject, such as Cantarow (1979) and Machlowitz (1980) believed there to be positive attributes to workaholism, including higher levels of creativity and taking more pleasure in work. Finally, in 1992, an article written by Janet Spence and Ann Robbins attempted to properly define what it meant to be a workaholic. They established a difference between a workaholic and what they called a "work enthusiast" (Spence & Robbins, 1992).

What is the difference between a workaholic and a work enthusiast?

A workaholic:
 * Feels very involved in their work
 * Experiences low enjoyment in regards to work
 * Feels compelled to work by inner pressures

In comparison, a work enthusiast:
 * Also feels involved in their work
 * Very much enjoys working
 * Does not feel driven to work

Ultimately, the main difference between workaholics and people who simply work hard or overwork is that workaholism is an addiction. Bryan Robinson, an author who has written extensively on the subject of workaholism, draws parallels between his own experiences with workaholism and his father's battles with alcoholism. Robinson also recounts a tale of a summer holiday in which he was so desperate to continue working that he hid folded papers covered in work notes from his partner and friends, so that while they enjoyed their time off at the beach, he could continue to work in secret (Robinson, 2014).

"Burnout" has recently been used as another relative to workaholism and work enthusiasm. Whereas workaholics are "pushed" to their work by inner pressures, and work enthusiasts are "pulled" to their work due to their intrinsic enjoyment in it, workers who have burnt out experience no draw to their work whatsoever. Burnout is characterised by a mental exhaustion in workers, coupled with an indifferent and detached attitude towards their work. Burnout is more similar to workaholism than work engagement, as it too results in a number of negative outcomes, including health issues and poorer work performance (van Beek, Hu, Schaufeli, Taris, & Schreurs, 2012).

Effects of workaholism on personal health
It is generally believed that overworking has a negative effect on a person's health. Research confirms this, with workaholism having been shown to be linked to a number of physical symptoms, including ulcers and chest pain (Chamberlin & Zhang, 2009). Workaholics often feel that they are "too busy" to properly take care of themselves, which leads to unhealthy diets and poor sleeping patterns. Robinson (2014) noted "when you're preoccupied with work, you don't notice signals, such as physical aches and pains or a reduced ability to function, that warn of serious health problems". Workaholism has also been shown to be directly positively correlated to ill-health (Shimazu, Schaufeli, & Taris, 2010; Burke, 2000), with researcher noting that workaholism also positively correlated with emotional discharge (which itself correlated positively with ill-health) and was not significantly associated with job performance (Shimazu, Schaufeli, & Taris, 2010). In Japan, overworking can get so extreme that it occasionally results in death, whether through poor levels of health that were exacerbated through long working hours, or simply suicide due to work-related stresses. This was at one point so prevalent in Japan that there is now a term specifically for it, karōshi, literally meaning "death from overwork".

However, as with other addictions, such as alcoholism, workaholism can also result in psychological effects on health as well. Robinson wrote that "the uncontrollable work urge engulfs you, numbing you to anxiety, worry, and stress. He also compared the work highs a workaholic may experience to the euphoria of an alcoholic. This euphoria eventually gives way to "work hangovers", which are characterised by withdrawal, depression, irritability, anxiety, and, in extreme cases, thoughts of suicide (Robinson, 2014). In 1994, two Japanese authors, F. Ishu Ishiyama and Akio Kitayama explored the psychosocial issues behind overworking, with a particular focus on Japanese workers. They theorised that self-validation could play a role in workaholism in Japan, suggesting that "work addiction keeps people from facing the existential task of defining who they are " (Ishiyama & Kitayama, 1994; Chamberlin & Zhang, 2009).

Effects of workaholism on social relations
Workaholism, like any other addiction, can have serious consequences not only on your own life, but on the lives of those around you. Earlier, the comparison that Robinson (2014) drew between workaholism and alcoholism was brought up. Robinson went on to draw further parallels in the ways that a person's loved ones are affected by their addiction. Robinson mentioned hiding work notes in the pocket of his jeans so that his partner would not find them, similarly to how an alcoholic may keep a "secret stash" of alcohol hidden from friends and family. Robinson's addiction to work continued to affect his life after this, causing him to spend weekends, holidays, and even most of his father's funeral working in a basement office. Eventually, Robinson's problem became so severe that his partner, who was himself struggling with an alcohol addiction, eventually left him, fed up with his attempts to socialise or otherwise interact with Robinson going unanswered.

Research has also shown that workaholism is positively correlated with work-family conflicts (Bakker, Demerouti, & Burke, 2009; Brady, Vodanovich, & Rotunda, 2008; Piotrowski & Vodanovich, 2004) and an overall lower level of relationship quality (Bakker, Demerouti, & Burke, 2009). This was believed to be related to the workaholic partner receiving less emotional support, due to them prioritising work over socialising. Brady, Vodanovich, & Rotunda (2008) also noted that while workaholism scores were significant predictors of work-family conflict, higher work enjoyment scores were significantly negatively predicting family conflict - that is, the "work enthusiasts" were not experiencing the same levels of family conflict as the workaholics were.

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory is one of several psychological theories used to explain motivation, or why people do the things they do. It especially focuses upon the effects that people's inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs have upon their self-motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). There are three core psychological needs identified as part of self-determination theory:


 * The desire to be in control of one's life
 * Represents a person's desire to do things for themselves
 * Lowered when presented with an extrinsic motivator for an otherwise intrinsic task


 * The desire to be able to be effective in one's interactions with the environment
 * Works as a combination of the challenge level of the task and one's skill level
 * Can be affected by comparing current performance with past performance or that of others


 * Universal need to interact and connect with others
 * The desire to develop close emotional bonds with other people
 * Improved by the presence of high-quality relationships involving caring, liking, accepting, and valuing

Self-determination theory usually deals in two broad types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is defined as the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one's capacities, to explore, and to learn (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Although intrinsic motivation is an inherent phenomenon, there are a number of variables which can affect the intensity of the motivation. Doing activities or completing tasks that a person finds interesting, enjoyable, or derives some inherent satisfaction from are known to be intrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000a), and the level of motivation is altered based on how well the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are fulfilled (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). For example, when people's feelings are acknowledged, when they are given choice and opportunity for self-direction, their intrinsic motivation is enhanced (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This is because they are experiencing a greater level of autonomy. However, when extra pressure is exhibited upon the person, for example from deadlines, evaluations, or imposed goals, their intrinsic motivation is decreased. This is because the stressors (deadlines, etc.) conduce towards an external perceived locus of causality - they make the person feel that they are less in control, or less autonomous (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Even the offer of rewards, if they are dependent upon the level of performance in a task, have been shown to lower intrinsic motivation. These things are what is known as extrinsic motivators.

Extrinsic motivation
Although intrinsic motivation is undoubtedly an important part of psychological motivation as a whole, it is extrinsic motivation which seems to make up the majority of activities encountered on a day-to-day basis. Extrinsic motivation is essentially the opposite of intrinsic motivation - while intrinsically motivated activities are performed simply due to enjoyment or interest in the activity itself, extrinsically motivated activities are performed in the hopes of achieving some distinct outcome. Extrinsically motivated tasks can vary in their level of personal autonomy. To use Ryan and Deci's (2000a) example, imagine two students working on their assigned homework. One is working on it to prevent receiving a punishment from his parents, while the other finishes her work because she knows it will be valuable knowledge in her future career. Neither is doing it because they find the homework itself enjoyable (an intrinsic motivation), but the first student is simply complying with an external control, while the second involves a feeling of choice and self-endorsement. Extrinsic motivation exists upon a continuum of motivation, ranging from amotivation (a lack of motivation) to intrinsic motivation. On this continuum, extrinsic motivation is broken down into four different kinds of motivation, under a sub-theory of self-determination theory, known as Organismic Integration Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).

External regulation:
 * Closest to amotivation, the least autonomous extrinsic motivation
 * Behaviours performed to satisfy an external demand or obtain a reward
 * Actions have an external perceived locus of causality

Introjected regulation:
 * Actions performed to avoid guilt or anxiety, or attain ego-boosts
 * Focused on approval from self or others
 * More internal, however still has an external perceived locus of causality

Identification:
 * Occurs when the importance of a behaviour has been identified
 * The activity has consciously been given value
 * Example: practising skills for use in future career

Integrated regulation:
 * The most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, closest to intrinsic motivation
 * Synthesis of external behaviour with internal goals
 * Bringing new regulations into balance with currently established values and needs

Motivations behind workaholism
Workaholism is generally believed to be extrinsically motivated (Van den Broeck, Schreurs, De Witte, Vansteenkiste, Germeys, & Schaufeli, 2011; van Beek, Hu, Schaufeli, Taris, & Schreurs, 2012); that is, it is motivated by some separable outcome. This is also supported by research stating that satisfaction of the three innate psychological needs is negatively correlated with compulsive working (van Beek et al., 2012; Andreassen, Hetland, & Pallesen, 2010). This means that workaholics are less likely to be autonomously motivated. Work engagement (the pursuit of the "work enthusiast") is believed to be intrinsically motivated (van Beek et al., 2012), due to the work being performed out of a sense of enjoyment for the task.

There are many theories behind what causes workaholics to develop their addiction to work. The impact of a workaholic's social environment is often taken into consideration. In particular, the very environment they work in can often be a contributing factor towards their workaholism. Typical work environments praise those who work hard, or those who are highly involved in their work. It is believed that this could act as a positive reinforcer for workaholics' behaviour, as workaholics often tend to pursue work that may result in some form of external reward, such as a rise in pay or a promotion (Porter, 1996; Van den Broeck et al., 2011; Ng, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2007). Workaholics may also feel as though working acts as an "escape" from their unpleasant non-work lives. This would correspond with the established belief that workaholics experience lower quality relationships and higher levels of work/family conflict. This escape from social interaction could form a spiral into further relationship decline - the workaholic, feeling unhappy at home, drives themselves further into their work, causing their partner to become more displeased, lowering their relationship quality, causing the workaholic to feel even more unhappy, and so on.

Another theory about the motivation behind workaholism is that workaholics feel internally pressured to work compulsively. Some workaholics may view excessive working as a way of increasing their self-esteem or reducing negative feeling about themselves, such as guilt, anxiety, or shame (Van den Broeck et al., 2011; Porter, 2004). This would be an example of introjected regulation, in that while the workaholic is not working towards any specified external reward such as a promotion, they are focusing upon gaining approval, whether from others, or themselves. Burke (1999) adds some weight to this theory, noting that compulsively working has been shown to be positively linked to perfectionism and the urge to prove oneself. Perfectionism has also been shown to be linked to external regulation and introjected regulation (van Beek et a.l, 2012; Miquelon, Vallerand, Grouzet, & Cardinal, 2005), which would mean that this is another form of extrinsic motivation for a workaholic.

Solutions to workaholism
So now, knowing all that we do about how workaholics are motivated to compulsively work, what can be done about it? In Japan, there is extreme societal pressure to work longer and longer hours. Overtime is simply something that is expected, and workers generally will not protest, for fear of the reaction from friends, family, and colleagues. Eventually, due to the severity of the problem that karōshi posed, companies began limiting the number of overtime hours employees were allowed to do. In a similar plan, a large banking group began allowing workers to go home up to three hours early, in order to have time to take care of children or elderly relatives. However, neither of these solutions seem to have had great effect - only 34 of the banking group's 7,000 employees took advantage of this plan, and in companies where overtime hours were limited, workers would either stay in the office with the lights off, or take their work home with them regardless.

Van Beek et al. (2012) showed that both workaholism and burnout (burnout is a state in which workers have become exhausted and cynical about their job, causing them to develop a mental distance to their work, in comparison to workaholics being "pushed" to work) are linked to negative outcomes, and so should be avoided. Work engagement (Spence & Robbins' "work enthusiast" (1992)), however, has been shown to be linked to beneficial outcomes, such as higher social functioning and perceived health (Schaufeli, Taris, & Van Rhenen, 2008; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007), as well as avoiding many of the pitfalls of workaholism, including higher levels of work satisfaction. An ideal solution, then, would be for all workaholics to simply "switch" to being work enthusiasts. However, such a change certainly would not be easy. One idea would be to increase the levels of autonomous motivation in the work environment - as workaholism and burnout are mainly extrinsically motivated, and therefore less autonomous, while work engagement is mainly intrinsically motivated, this would promote levels of work engagement and reduce levels of workaholism. In order to do this, the workplace would need to offer a new style of management - one that offers more choices and meaningful reasons for doing specific tasks.

Quiz


{ Do workaholics enjoy their work?  - Yes + No
 * type="" }

{ What are the three innate psychological needs? } + Autonomy + Competence - Workaholism + Relatedness

{ Workaholism is generally believed to be... (Choose all that apply) + Extrinsically motivated - Less likely to cause work/family conflicts + Associated with reduced relationship quality - Intrinsically motivated
 * type="[]" }

Conclusion
There's nothing wrong with working hard; in fact, it may even be beneficial for your health and work quality.

Workaholism, however, is an addiction, and while it may not be seen as being nearly as serious as addictions to alcohol or gambling, it is no less destructive. It can have serious negative effects on your physical and mental health, as well as your social relationships.

Future studies should look more closely into how to better cultivate a more autonomous working environment, in order to reduce the levels of workaholism and promote the levels of work engagement.