Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Academic locus of control

Overview
What motivates someone to attend class, study for an exam or complete an assignment well?

According to theories of motivation there are a number of possible explanations, most of which involve various aspects such as control beliefs, expectancy of success, value of the task or its outcome, belief in capability to complete the task, competence and autonomy. These theories can help us understand academic loci of control by providing explanations for the different motivations that are experienced by people who believe in internal versus external factors of control.

Locus of control (LOC) refers to an orientation scale whereby people prescribe successes and failures to either internal or external forces. These beliefs are stable and can be used to predict performance outcome (Rotter, 1966).

Focus questions:
 * What motivates someone to attend class, study for an exam or complete an assignment well?
 * What is academic locus of control?
 * What are possible consequences of academic locus of control?
 * How can academic locus of control be developed?

What is locus of control?
Locus of control (LOC) is a concept which refers to the tendency people have to prescribe their success or failure to a set of beliefs which are either internal or external. These beliefs are stable and can be used to predict performance outcome (Rotter, 1966). It is not a case of either or, rather LOC is measured on a continuum (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).


 * Internal LOC: People with an internal locus believe that their own ability, effort, and motivation will determine their level of success (Rotter, 1966).
 * External LOC: Those who possess an external LOC believe that luck, chance, the difficulty of the task, and the actions and sway of other people determine their success (Rotter, 1966).

For example, Sally fails her property law exam and attributes this failure to the fact she did not attend a single class this semester. Sally has an internal LOC.

Someone with an external LOC lacks belief that their own efforts to study will improve their academic performance (no expectancy that study will produce positive results); according to theory they will therefore lack motivation to study. They may instead believe that a positive outcome will be dependent on the teacher liking them.

On the contrary, someone with an internal LOC believes that if they study hard, they will perform better academically (expectancy of success) and according to the theories they will therefore experience greater motivation to study.

Academic locus of control


Expanding upon the definition of LOC, Trice (1985) defined academic LOC as the belief a student holds that their behaviours either can or cannot determine their academic success (Jain et al., 2019).

If I put in the effort will I do well?
 * If the answer is yes, then the person will likely score higher on internal academic LOC.
 * If the answer is no, they will likely score higher on external academic LOC

Examples of internal orientation academic beliefs: attending class, taking notes, completing readings, and studying for exams will improve academic performance

Examples of external orientation academic beliefs: If I get lucky I will pass this exam, if not I will fail; the exam was easy which is why I passed; I can't possibly do well on this assignment because it is too hard and beyond my capabilities.

In order to understand what an academic LOC is and how it affects (or perhaps is affected by) motivation, consideration must be given to what does and does not motivate people to learn or strive for academic success. There are several motivational theories which can help with this.

Expectancy-Value theory
According to expectancy-value theory, motivation for a task is determined by degree of expectation of success and whether the task has value to them (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). If either one of these factors is non-existent (i.e. no belief they will be successful or the task holds no value to them) then there will be no motivation to complete the task (Meyer et al., 2019).

Application of theory to academic locus of control:

If a person believes that studying hard will not be reflected in improved performance on a test or assignment (an external locus of control), then they will have no motivation to study (no expectancy of success). Alternatively, if they do not believe that the task (study) will achieve their desired result (good academic performance) then the task will likely have no value for them, again resulting in no motivation to study.

Can I do this task?
 * People with internal LOC > believe in their competence at the task > believe effort will translate to achievement > have a high expectancy of success > task is of value > they are motivated to apply effort in order to succeed
 * People with external LOC > lack belief/satisfaction of competence > lack expectation of success > task may or may not be of value (even if it is, they may feel they lack ability to succeed) > they are not motivated to apply effort


 * If yes, they believe in their competence and likelihood of success

{Lucy expects she will score very highly on her Motivation assignment, but the task holds no value for her. According to Expectancy-Value Theory, Lucy will experience______________ for the assignment: - Moderate amount of motivation - Extrinsic motivation - Very high motivation - Intrinsic motivation + No motivation
 * Quiz
 * type=""}

Self-Efficacy theory



 * Bandura's self-efficacy theory - focuses on confidence in ones' own ability ability to determine and accomplish the requisite course of action in order to complete a task. Multidimensional: variations in strength (strong vs weak sense of self-efficacy), generality (many situations vs specific or narrow beliefs of efficacy), and level of difficulty (efficacy on easy tasks vs efficacy on both easy and hard tasks) (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
 * Similar focus on expectancy as in expectancy-value theory however Bandura distinguished between two different expectancy beliefs:
 * 1) Outcome: Belief that ones' actions will produce a certain outcome.
 * 2) Efficacy: Belief in ones' own ability to successfully perform the necessary actions in order to actually achieve the outcome.

This theory differs to expectancy value theory in that an individual may believe that the action will produce the outcome, but that does not necessarily mean they believe they are capable of the action.

According to Bandura, without this belief in competency a person will have limited motivation for a task and very little incentive to persist when the task is, or becomes, difficult (Bandura et al., 2001).

Application of theory to academic locus of control:

Expectancy-Value Theory: If a person believes that studying hard will not be reflected in improved performance on a test or assignment (an external locus of control), then they will have little to no motivation to study (as there is no expectancy of success). Alternatively, if the task (good academic performance) has no value to the person this will again result in little to no motivation to achieve the task.

Self-Efficacy Theory: Even where the task of performing well academically is a valuable one, and the person believes that studying hard will improve academic performance (internal locus of control), according to the theory of Self-Efficacy the person must also believe that they are capable of successfully completing the necessary study. Where the person does not believe they are capable of the requisite action they will lack motivation to try.

{Jordan knows that his performance on the quiz next week will be determined by how much he studies. He has no doubt about his capability to study the content of the quiz. The quiz is only worth 2% however, which provides very little contribution to his overall grade. According to Expectancy-Value & Self-Efficacy, Jordan is lacking in which factor of motivation: + Value of goal - Belief that action will be reflected in outcome - Belief in his own competence to act successfully - Sufficient reward upon completion of task
 * Quiz
 * type=""}

Consequences


There is lots of research into the consequences of an internal versus an external LOC in various areas such as employment and academics, however there is very little research into what contributes to the development of one loci over the other (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Academics
A 2016 study found that students who scored higher grade point averages also scored higher on measures of LOC, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation. These findings suggested that higher academically achieving students are more likely to score as having a highly internal LOC, greater intrinsic motivation, and high self-efficacy beliefs (Mourgues et al., 2016). The findings of this study corroborate previous studies which found that external control orientations correlate to lower grade point averages (Shepherd et al., 2006) while better grade point averages correlate with internal control orientations (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2004).

External control orientations are also associated with more procrastination and greater trouble with task difficulty (Janssen & Carton, 1999). Internal orientations have been linked with greater persistence in the face of difficult tasks and failure (Karabenick, 1972).

Another study which reported similar findings in 2017 found that the stronger a student scored towards an external LOC the greater their procrastination levels were. Further, as internal orientation scores increased, so did self-efficacy measurements. A third finding of this study was that students with high levels of academic achievement also scored higher for internal LOC and self-efficacy measurements (Certel & Kozac, 2017).

Development and personality
Research has found that an internal LOC promotes positive outcomes in young people not only academically but also for general well-being. Such an alignment is also considered to be a protective factor when it comes to exposure to violence amongst the community and reducing violent behaviour (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Internally oriented people tend to exhibit more socially desirable personality traits including responsibility, tolerance, resilience, self-control, a greater ability to cope with stressful situations and a sense of their own general well-being (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Aggression, delinquent behaviour, lower self-control, poorer ability to cope with stressful situations, and less likely to have a good sense of well-being are all associated with an external LOC (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Mental health
Externally oriented people are also more likely to experience mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression and are also more prone to experiencing a general sense of helplessness (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Quiz
Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": {David passes his exam and exclaims "Wow I got lucky, I must have good karma!". David likely has what type of locus of control? - Extrinsic - Luck based + External - Internal - Intrinsic
 * type=""}

{High internal control orientations are attributed with ________; High external control orientations with ________. - Greater procrastination; Higher academic achievement + Higher academic achievement; Lower academic achievement - Lower academic achievement; Higher academic achievement - Belief in luck; Belief in control - Greater trouble with task difficulty; Belief in luck
 * type=""}

Locus development
There is not much research into what contributes to the development of control orientations, though it is known that a LOC is not innate, rather its development can be influenced. Forming a locus entails a person learning what they can and cannot control. Once a locus is formed it usually remains stable throughout life but with time it can be changed by new experiences regarding expectancy beliefs and reinforcement (Rotter, 1966; Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Several theories of motivation shed some light on why people with an internal LOC tend to perform better academically as well as in other areas of their life and what they have in common are features of expectancy belief and self-efficacy, with suggestions of intrinsic motivation and the psychological needs of autonomy and competence. As such, increasing each of these factors by supporting their development from a young age may help the development of an internal LOC, a belief system which will likely positively influence the development of an internal academic locus of control as well.

The research suggests that such support is vital not only in academic settings but also at home with family and amongst peers. Further research is needed to determine to what extent the multiple variables involved in each of these settings interact and influence the development of a LOC (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Parenting style
There is some evidence that shows that parenting strategies influence the development of a LOC, with close parental monitoring and warm parental relationships associated with an internal locus. Overprotective parenting, low parental warm, harsh family environment and experiences of rejection within the family can all foster the development of an external locus; possibly due to inconsistent reinforcement of behaviour and belief by the family (Ahlin & Lobo Antunes, 2015).

Expectancy belief
Multiple theories posit the importance of expectancy of success for motivation, including expectancy-value theory and self-efficacy theory. Two factors of expectancy belief have been identified as being important contributors for motivation, outcome, and efficacy. Outcome beliefs refer to the belief that your own actions will produce a certain outcome, in this case that study will produce better academic results. Efficacy beliefs refer to belief in your own capability to successfully perform the action required to produce the outcome, in this case belief in capability to study successfully. Without this belief in competency it is posited that a person will experience extremely limited motivation and little incentive to persist with a difficult task.

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to the perception an individual has about their ability to achieve a certain task or to perform the actions required for a desired outcome (Bandura, 2006). In academics, the perception is in relation to the belief an individual has about their ability to successfully complete academic tasks. Academic self-efficacy has been found to strongly correlate with academic achievement (Mourgues et al., 2016;). Some research has indicated that self-efficacy is the best predictor of academic achievement (Robbins et al., 2004).

Intrinsic motivation
When a person experiences intrinsic motivation for a task, they will perform the task simply for the enjoyment they get from doing so (Malik et al., 2014). Expanding on this, an intrinsically motivated student studies because they enjoy learning. The enjoyment of the task is attributed to satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy and competence (Deci et al., 1999).

Intrinsic motivation encourages people to show initiative, engage in learning, and extend their capabilities as well as nurturing positive emotions, vitality and general sense of well-being (Reeve, 2018).

Where a task satisfies these psychological needs, intrinsic motivation increases; where a task prevents need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation decreases (Deci et al., 1999).

Autonomy and competence
Autonomy relates to the psychological need to make your own decisions rather than have decisions forced upon you. To satisfy this need an individual requires their behaviour to be the result of their own interests, likes, and goals. The individual should get to decide when, where, how, why and if they want to do the behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Reeve, 2018). Where an individual loses their sense of choice due to another person or outside force, autonomy cannot be satisfied (Reeve, 2018).

When an extrinsic reward is on offer but an individual believes they lack the ability to complete the task successfully, they will lack motivation for the task because of their perceived low chance of attaining the reward (Malik et al., 2014).

Competence refers to the need everyone has to experience effective interaction with their environment by constantly expanding their skills and abilities so as to be masterful, overcome optimal challenges and maximise personal growth (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Autonomy-supportive teaching
A teacher who supports autonomy considers the students perspective, enhances intrinsic motivation, provides explanations in informative ways, acknowledges complaints or criticisms, and displays patience (Reeve, 2018).

A teacher who does not support autonomy considers only their own perspective, introduces extrinsic motivators, fails to provide explanations, and uses controlling language, argues against criticism and displays impatience (Reeve, 2018).

Supporting satisfaction of autonomy also encourages satisfaction of the competence need, intrinsic motivation, internalised beliefs and values, as well as leading the way to positive development, academic performance and well-being (Reeve, 2018).

Rewards
The satisfaction of the autonomy and competence needs are vital to the experience of intrinsic motivation. The research as to the effect of rewards on intrinsic motivation is conflicting. Some studies have found that the reward is controlling (thus thwarting autonomy and damaging intrinsic motivation) and others found that rewards could be used to indicate a job well done (thus satisfying the psychological need for competence) (Deci et al., 1999). It is posited that where a reward is deemed by the recipient to be controlling the need for autonomy is not satisfied, reinforcing an externally aligned locus, and intrinsic motivation is undermined. Where rewards are deemed informational it is expected that the need for competence will be satisfied and intrinsic motivation will be preserved (Deci et al., 1999).

Constructive feedback.
The provision of feedback about a behaviour does not in and of itself enable an individual to feel a sense competence, rather constructive feedback enables the individual to make progress by identifying weaknesses, providing encouragement and guidance to strengthen those areas as well as providing a goal to work towards (Reeve, 2018).

Conclusion
Locus of control beliefs (academic or otherwise) occur on a continuum; once developed, a locus remains relatively stable however may change over time with new experiences and reinforcement of control beliefs.

Individuals with an internal academic locus of control not only tend to perform much better academically but are also likely to possess far more socially desirable traits such as responsibility, resilience and self-control.

Those with an external academic locus of control are more likely to exhibit behaviours such as aggression and delinquent behaviour. They are also more likely to experience mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression.

According to theories of motivation, it is crucial for an individual to believe not only that their actions can determine an outcome, but also that they are capable of completing that action. For a student, this means it is crucial that they believe that their efforts at gaining competence with the unit material will improve their performance in that unit.

Although the research into how a locus is formed is lacking and given the fact that a locus remains mostly stable once developed, it is incredibly important that parents and teachers utilise the many theories of motivation which can aid in the understanding of an academic locus of control.

Teachers who are aware of motivation principles and who use autonomy-supportive teaching styles, provide encouragement and feedback, and possibly competence satisfying rewards, can help to nurture not only intrinsic motivation to learn but also an internal academic locus of control.

Helping a child believe in their own abilities and encouraging them to expand their learning satisfies the psychological needs of competence and autonomy. The theories suggest that both parents and teachers should ensure from an early age that a child believes in their own ability to achieve positive results by way of encouragement, guidance and constructive criticism so as to help construct an internal LOC. The benefits of an internal LOC extend beyond academics to healthy overall development and well-being and quite likely to the workplace in later life as well.