Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride

Overview
Shame, guilt, and pride are understood as complex self-conscious emotions. These emotions are known to impact our sense of self, self-worth, and self-esteem. In society, shame, guilt and pride are often viewed as negatively impactful, but they can be considered useful to encourage motivation and social harmony. This chapter aims to understand the impacts that culture has on shame guilt and pride, as well as provide definitions and examples of culture and emotion. There are many theories of emotion that not only apply to past knowledge, but impact our current understanding of what influences and promotes emotion. These include the two-factor theory of emotion, proposed by Schacter and Singer's (1962); the cognitive appraisal theory, founded by Lazarus (1982); and the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (1927). Current literature lacks an explanation as to the direct relationship between culture and secondary emotions (shame, guilt, embarrassment and pride) so linkages will be made incorporating modern culture the emotions independently. Understanding the relationship between culture and emotion is important for maximising positive outcomes like motivation, self-esteem, belonging.


 * Focus questions
 * What are emotions?
 * How do you define shame, guilt and pride?
 * What are some theories of emotion?
 * What is culture?
 * How does culture influence shame, guilt and pride?

Emotion definition


Emotions are biologically-based psychological states that are caused by neurophysiological changes. They are associated with a variety of thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a level of pleasure or displeasure. Emotions are often impacted by individual circumstances, relationships, location and mood (Adolphs, 2010). Paul Ekman (1992) studied emotions through facial expression, and theorised that we have “basic emotions”: happiness, anger, surprise, disgust, fear and sadness. All other variations of emotions under this theory link or are morphed from the 6 basic emotions. Considine et al. (2003) study expanded on Ekman’s original theory. The investigation sought 123 males and 213 females from 4 different continents to read text descriptions of “emotional” behaviour. Results found anger, happiness, fear and sadness to be more readily identified than more cognitively complex emotions such as guilt, shame and pride. This gives insights into motor features of emotion (behavioural responses to emotion) and outlines how complex emotions often go unidentified and are harder to act/reflect upon.

Shame
Shame Is a painful feeling of humiliation or distress caused by the consciousness of wrong or foolish behaviour (oxford languages, 2003). Shame is an emotion that often fuels people to make a change in their life, or hide their wrong doings. Shame is often invisible in modern societies because of taboo. While shame primarily remains hidden, it is often used across cultures and individuals on platforms such as social media to influence others. Strong feelings of shame stimulate the sympathetic nervous system which leads to a fight/flight reaction, and is associated with: panic attacks, anxiety, panic disorder and major depressive disorder. Shame-based beliefs are a sign of toxic shame and can include thoughts such as: "I’m unattractive, especially to a romantic partner; I don’t matter, to others or myself; I’m a failure, I shouldn’t have been born" etc.

Guilt
Guilt is defined as having committed a specified or implied offence or crime (Oxford Languages, 2004). Often people feel guilty when they believe their personal morals, or the morals of those around them have been violated by their words/actions. Guilty people generally feel significant responsibility for the actions and behaviour they display (however this is not always the case). People can feel guilty for their personal actions, or for those whom they are close to (e.g., you may feel guilty for your partners behaviour on a night out with family or friends). Guilt, similar to shame and pride is a self-conscious emotion. One of the best ways to cope with guilt is to apologise for, and correct, your actions (Bem, Strelan & Proeve, 2021). Some people experience excessive guilt, and while it does not always indicate a further reaching problem, it can be a symptom of bipolar disorder and depression.

Pride
"In so far as a man amounts to anything, stands for anything, is truly an individual, he has an ego about him to which his passions cluster, and to aggrandize which must be a principle aim within him" -	Cooley (1902, p. 216)

Pride, in comparison to other emotions, has received very little research attention; this emotion is generally viewed as a self-conscious, secondary emotion. Pride is defined as a deep pleasure or satisfaction derived from one's own achievements, the accomplishments of those with whom one is closely associated, or widely admired qualities or assets (Oxford Languages, 2000). Hart and Mastaba (2007) dictate pride to be an important psychological and adaptive emotion, due to its pleasurable and reinforcing attributes. Feelings of pride have also been found to contribute to the development of self-esteem and positive self-worth (Brown & Marshall, 2001). Pride, also, has been found to motivate perseverance, as people wish to be proud of their actions, contributions, economic status, associates etc. (Williams & DeSento, 2008). Pride can be seen as positive (it increases self-esteem and motivation) or negative (it encourages egotistical views and people can become immodest). Pride is often villainised in ancient and modern society, for example through its incorporation in the 7 deadly sins. This pessimistic taint has lead to it being a deprecated emotion.

Schacter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion
According to Schacter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion (1962), emotion has two key components (refer to Table 1): physical arousal (a physiological response) and a cognitive label (your mind identifying the response of your physical state). Schacter et al. (1962) expressed the importance of understanding one’s physiological response and why it is occurring; “we must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion”. Schacter and Singers experiment used a test sample of 184 male participants. The participants were injected with the hormone epinephrine which produces arousal. Participants were split into two groups; those who had been told of the risks associated with the experiment, and those who had not. A confederate was assigned to each group and acted either happy or angry. Results showed that those whom were in the uninformed group labelled their emotions using their feelings in current time and overall displayed more intense emotions. The underlying theory and findings indicate that when the brain cannot decipher why it feels a particular emotion, it relies on external stimulations for cues on how to label the emotion.

Lazarus cognitive appraisal theory of emotion


Cognitive appraisal is the assessment of an emotional situation, in which a person will evaluate how a particular event will affect them, interpret the event and actions that took place, and arrive at a response based on that interpretation (Lazarus, 1982). Furthermore, cognitive appraisal is subdivided into 3 categories: Primary appraisal, referring to the initial evaluation of the situation, deeming a situation as positive, negative (stress) or neutral; secondary appraisal, the evaluation of one’s ability to cope with the situation; and reappraisal, recognising the pattern of your thoughts and altering them for the situation at hand, as well as re-evaluating the situation (Smith & Curby, 2001). Cognitive appraisal is generally used when there is little evidence or indication of how one should act in a particular situation, as it is on a basic level: perception of surroundings and situations. For example, you go to a new restaurant with your partner and find the restaurant to be cluttered and unorganised when you first arrive, you might view this situation as negative and feel you cannot eat there as it makes you uncomfortable, you may re-evaluate the situation and find that you can sit at one table away from the clutter comfortably. The emotion you feel under this theory, stems from your personal perception and evaluation of a situation.

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion


Cannon-Bard’s (1927) theory of emotion (also known as the thalamic theory of emotion) interprets how physiological functions produce and alter emotion. More specifically, the theory proposes the thalamus sends a message to the brain in response to a catalyst, which in turn results in the formation of an emotion. For example, you see a spider, you are frightened, your heart beat increases and you begin to shake. The emotion of the described experience is fear which can be identified through the physical symptoms you display. The reaction to the stimuli and the emotion occur in unison as the thalamus (responsible for receiving sensory information) transmits a signal to the amygdala when an event occurs. The amygdala is located in the limbic system, in the centre of the brain. The amygdala is the combining centre for emotion, emotional behaviour and motivation (Swanson & Petrovich, 1998). The thalamus may also send signals to the Cerebral cortex (which stimulates and controls continuous thoughts). Simultaneously, the thalamus can send signals to the automatic nervous system which initiates a physical reaction. While Cannon's theory provides some interesting insights, the soundness has been questioned in relation to the thalamus' contribution and the hypothalamus.

What is culture?
Culture is notoriously a difficult term to define, due to culture belonging to different paradigms in social sciences and evolution. The term ‘culture’ has been interpreted differently, and evolution has seen changes in theory and definition of the word and its meaning. Today, we primarily view culture as a group or society in which someone identifies and relates to (Schein, 1991). However, culture can also be attributed to wider reaching ideas such as “pop culture” which refers to popular behaviours and interests, which many view as positive and desirable. Culture is learned, not inherited, it derives from one’s social environment, not one’s genes and is dissimilar to human nature and individuality (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2012). Culture is learned through processes of socialisation and "norms" within the geographical location in which one finds themselves. All human societies have cultural universals. These include forms of expression such as painting and sculpture, dance, music, cooking, ritual, and religion, and further technologies including tool usages, shelter and clothing. Please refer to the list below for some modern thoughts and understandings relating to culture.

Definitions of culture:


 * The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.
 * The ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society
 * A group that we identify with on an individual level
 * A sacred way of life from past to present
 * Attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, food, music, language, customs, rituals and religion

How does culture effect us?


Culture affects individuals in a holistic way. As people often use culture to define part of who they are- it plays a huge role in self-perception, self-esteem and morals (Clarke, 2008). Culture, also, introduces negative effects on an individual’s life, it is not through belonging to a culture itself, but identification from out-group members who view your culture to be harmful or unlikeable. Racism and stereotyping typify this negative effect. Some cultures (such as aboriginal culture) have been ridiculed for their customs and traditions, and labelled ‘primitive’ the effect of such a label on aboriginal culture has seen suppression and lack of opportunity (Christie, 1998). Culture also effects behaviour, social norms and morals, differentiating one culture from the next. In Islamic culture, religion (worshiping Allah) and wearing hijabs is a social norm (although not all Muslims follow these practises). These customs are unalike any others in the world and are unique to Islam (Moaddel, 2002). Asian culture has customs of art, music and philosophy, the customs and practises are very different to those of Islam, for example. In simple terms, culture differentiates us from others in the world, and yet gives us belonging to a group which we share ideals. A sense of belonging and uniqueness have a positive impact on our lives as it can eradicate loneliness and feelings of worthlessness (Tsai, Knutson & Fung, 2006).

Culture and shame
Shame is not only respected in many non-western cultural contexts, but is also seen as an appropriate emotional response to failure. The positive value placed on shame in non-westernised cultural contexts is consistent with goals of self-effacement, conformity to norms, and self-improvement. (Wong, Y & Tsai, 2007). Shame is often confused with guilt (see table 2) but has different effects and cultural processes associated with it. Research by Kitayama et al. (1997) discovered two aspects about shame: first, that American situations are relatively conducive to self-enhancement, and, that Americans are relatively likely to engage in self-enhancement. Secondly, Japanese situations are amenable to self-criticism, and Japanese people are more likely to engage in self-criticism. Not only do dissimilar cultures view shame differently, but the influence of shame between cultural groups is opposing. For example, America is known for having “shame culture”, in which deviating from norms is seen as unacceptable. In this sense, American culture has an influence on eschewing shame, making the very essence and feeling of shame a negative thing. Due to this, American citizens may mask and suppress their shame, which ultimately can lead to issues in mental health e.g., depression. Additionally, in many westernised cultures, shame is used as a tool to regulate social systems and hierarchies (Fessler, 2004). Use of shame in cultural groups can cause social rejection (when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship) as it can be used to deliberately alter someone’s self-confidence, and, cause discern as a response to the ‘failure to meet cultural expectation’. Shame is not only used for ‘in-group culture’ but also used in relation to other cultures in which one is not a part of. This often occurs to stimulate hierarchies and alpha mentality on a national scale. Often cultures are shamed for traditions and customs which out-group members do not understand or prioritise as part of their morals. For example, the LBGT culture are shamed for their core belief “love is love” from those who do not belong within the culture themselves.

Culture and guilt


Guilt is often labelled as being a culturally conditioned emotion and phenomenon. Feelings of guilt create intimidation and the need for punishment (Bierbrauer, 1992). Guilt in culture can lead to authoritarian behaviours and manipulation, which one culture can project onto the next. Guilt culture behaviour is regulated via internal sanctions and is more prevalent in modern western cultures (Wallbott & Scherer, 1995). A lack of empathy among a culture/ cultures has also been associated with expansive feelings of guilt (Pedersen, Beven, Walker & Griffiths, 2004). Empathic emotions encourage and sense understanding for an individual's position, and the ability to 'put one's self in another shoes'. Typically, cultures that prioritise 'togetherness' and supportive behaviours practice and display empathy more than those that don't. Thus, it can be said that cultures whom empathise more, inflict less guilt for wrong-doing and violation of cultural norms. Interestingly, connections between displaying empathy and being guilty have been made, those who empathise understand what it feels like to be guilty because they too, in the past  have been a victim of personal or cultural guilt (Basil, Ridgway & Basil, 2008). It is supposed, that some cultures experience feelings and emotions of guilt more than others- this has been studied through the transgressions used to measure guilt.

Case study:

Biaggio (1969) investigated whether guilt feelings were more internalised in Americans than in Brazilians (using a sample of adolescents). The responses of the participants to several incomplete stories in which the main character committed a transgression were used to calculate their level of guilt internalisation in the investigation. To evaluate the responses, the author's proposed criterion for distinguishing between "internalised" and "externalised" guilt had been used: There was "internalised guilt" when the main character's reaction to a transgression occurred in the absence of any external threat; other indicators of internalised guilt included the presence of remorse or regret. When the main character's reaction appeared to be motivated by some external punishment, immanent punishment, or fear, there was "externalised guilt". Analyses revealed that American adolescents had more internalised guilt feelings than Brazilians, confirming the author's hypothesis (Etxebarría, 2004).

Culture and pride
Pride often has positive connotations associated with it, and is seen as a desirable emotion for cultures to procure. Current publications and literature such as Eriksen & Heimestøl (2017) suggest how to better integrate pride in culture to facilitate confidence and trust. The frequency and intensity of pride has been found to differ between cultures, with lower feelings of pride in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic ones (Liu, Li, Chen, Wu, Yuan & Yu, 2021). This is, perhaps due to individualistic cultures focusing more on intrinsic accomplishments rather than the accomplishments of a group. Group accomplishments are more difficult to observe, due to their expansive nature and necessity for communication. For example, you will not know your neighbour has accomplished their steps’ goal for the day, unless they inform you of their accomplishment. Culture of men (masculinity) has also been strongly associated with pride. However, this association in many ways is negative, as the expectation in male culture is that one should demonstrate proud behaviours. This often discourages men from feeling oppositional emotions such as feeling ashamed. The effect of male culture on pride, in a way, sees that the actual emotion of feeling proud is often “faked” and is “owned by masculinity” (Boeuf, 2020). The effect this has on femininity (or the culture of women) is a lack in feeling pride, or discouragement to express pride in personal growth, such as: financial, physical and educational pride.

Conclusion
Over a range of theories and studies discussed to locate the influence of culture on shame, guilt and pride, it is clear that further study in the field needs to be conducted. Emotions and culture are wide ranging topics with many interesting concepts to discuss and discover, however the direct links between culture and the self-conscious emotions stated prior still remains unknown. Current connections have been made about shame and culture, in relation to deviating norms, and acceptance of shame emotions. Western culture has established shame as a negative emotion, and has incorporated “shame culture” to shun individuals who do not adhere to the social standards and morals associated with the culture. While Japanese culture welcomes feelings of shame and interprets the emotion as a sign of potential growth and a motivational influencer. Culture, also, influences emotions of guilt culture behaviour (primarily in westernised society). A lack of empathy, further, has been studied in relation to the placement of guilt between differing cultural groups. Finally, linkages between culture and pride have been made in relation to masculinity and individualistic culture. Male culture is often forced into the conformity and expression of pride so as to seem “manly”. The positive impacts on cultures and its impact on behaviour is still relatively novel; the contributions to the topic will influence future psychological understanding of both culture and emotions: separately and in correlation.