Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Domestic violence motivation

Overview


Domestic violence is a prevalent issue worldwide that affects the lives of millions of people and has long-lasting consequences on victims. It can occur in a variety of forms and affect victims physically, emotionally, financially and psychologically. Understanding the motivations behind domestic violence is an important step in identifying and implementing interventions and preventative measures.

This chapter provides an overview of domestic violence and answers the following questions:
 * What is violence?
 * What is domestic violence?
 * Who are the perpetrators and victims of domestic violence?
 * What are the different forms of domestic violence?
 * What factors motivate people to commit domestic violence?
 * What can be done to prevent domestic violence?

Domestic violence is an important issue to address especially now, as lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic have increased the exposure of victims to abusive partners, isolating them from support and limiting their access to outside help (see Figure 1) (Peterman et al., 2020).

In some regions of the United States in 2020, the number of calls made to domestic violence hotlines dropped by more than 50%. This was not due to decreasing rates of domestic violence, but rather that victims were unable to safely connect with services (Evans et al., 2020).

What is violence?
Violence is defined by the World Health Organisation as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation” (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2014, p. 2). Violence can be categorised into the following categories according to characteristics of those committing the violent act:


 * Self-directed violence: violence a person inflicts upon himself or herself (suicidal and behaviour and self-abuse)
 * Interpersonal violence: violence inflicted by another individual or by a small group of individuals (family violence and community violence)
 * Collective violence: violence inflicted by larger groups such as states, organized political groups, militia groups and terrorist organizations (social, political and economic violence) (Krug et al., 2002)

More than 1.3 million people worldwide die each year as a result of violence in all its forms (self-directed, interpersonal and collective), accounting for 2.5% of global mortality (WHO, 2014). In addition, tens of thousands of people around the world are victims of non-fatal violence every day, including physical, sexual and psychological abuse (WHO, 2014).

What is domestic violence?
Domestic violence affects all genders and can occur in a variety of forms, including physical, sexual, psychological, social, economic and spiritual abuse. It can lead to multiple adverse outcomes for victims, both in the short term and long term.

Definition
Family violence is a type of interpersonal violence between family members, typically where the perpetrator exercises power and control over another person. The most prevalent instances of family violence occur in relationships between intimate partners and are usually referred to as domestic violence (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2019). Domestic violence (also known as relationship violence, intimate partner violence and gender-based violence) refers to acts of physical, sexual, emotional and psychological abuse that occur within intimate relationships and take place in domestic settings (Morgan & Chadwick, 2009).

Perpetrators
Although women can be violent towards their male partners and violence occurs also between partners of the same sex, the overwhelming burden of domestic violence is borne by women at the hands of men (Hester, 2013; Krug et al., 2002). The World Health Organisation's ecological model for understanding violence (Krug et al., 2002) provides a better understanding of the risk factors associated with perpetrators of violence, viewing violence as the outcome of a complex interaction between factors at four levels:
 * Individual level: the influence of personal characteristics, biological factors, behaviour and personal experience. These factors can include demographic characteristics (age, education, income), psychological or personality disorders, substance abuse, a history of behaving aggressively, and experiencing or witnessing violence
 * Relationship level: the influence of personal relationships between family, friends, intimate partners and peers. This can include association with aggressive peers, current marital instability, insecure attachment style, and personal histories marked by divorce or separation. Interpersonal violence is specifically is different to family violence, as it specifically involves partnerships where physical intimacy is involved.
 * Community level: the contexts in which social relationships occur (e.g. schools, neighbourhoods and workplaces). Risk factors may include poverty and low socioeconomic status, low community connectedness, residential mobility and a lack of recreational activities
 * Societal level: the influence of larger societal factors. These include gender, social and economic inequalities, as well as norms and attitudes such as those around male dominance over women (Capaldi et al., 2012; Flood & Pease, 2006; Mouzos & Makkai, 2004).

There are several risk factors that have lead to increasing rates of domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic, including financial strain, negative coping mechanisms (e.g. excessive alcohol consumption), social isolation, and psychological factors such as stress and depression (Usher et al., 2020).

Victims
While victims of domestic violence include all genders, studies have shown that the majority of victims of domestic violence are women (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017; Smith et al., 2018; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). Global estimates of intimate partner violence perpetrated by men against women indicate that 30% of ever-partnered women (about one in three) worldwide have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner at some point in their lives (WHO, 2021). Domestic violence can have adverse short-term and long-term impacts on the physical and mental health of victims (Karakurt et al., 2014; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000), and can have fatal consequences. In 2013, it was estimated that many as 38% of female homicides globally were committed by intimate partners while the corresponding figure for men was 6% (Stöckl et al., 2013).

Forms of abuse
While domestic violence is traditionally associated with cases of physical abuse, it can involve a range of other forms (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Different Forms of Domestic Violence Note. Adapted from Key issues in domestic violence (Research in practice no. 7, p. 2) by Morgan, A., & Chadwick, H, 2009, Australian Institute of Criminology.

Motives of domestic violence


While there are multiple factors that can motivate domestic violence, the most commonly identified ones are related to power and control, expression of negative emotions, self-defence, and retaliation.

Regaining/maintaining a sense of power and control
The abuse of power and control is a prominent motivator among perpetrators of domestic violence and includes common themes of assertion of dominance, control of physical and verbal behaviours and emotional responses, punishment for unwanted behaviours, and isolation from important others (Hamberger et al., 1994). Blame is often put on the victim to deflect guilt and responsibility for the perpetrator's actions (e.g., partner annoyed the assailant, partner yelled at the assailant, partner criticised the assailant, etc.) (Bonem et al., 2008; Kernsmith, 2005). One study showed that male perpetrators frequently indicated that partners "deserved" the abuse because they challenged the male's familial authority (Kernsmith, 2005).

The Power and Control Wheel (see Figure 2), created and utilised by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project, can assist in providing an understanding of the abusive behaviours associated with maintaining control. The power and control wheel is used as an explanation of the tactics used by men against women in particular, and shows the power imbalances in relationships between men and women that reflect power imbalances in society (Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs, n.d.)

Expression of negative emotions
The expression of negative emotions such as anger and jealousy is a motivator for domestic violence and can be linked to emotional dysregulation, characterised by non-acceptance of emotional responses, difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviour and impulse control, lack of emotional awareness and clarity, and limited access to emotion regulation strategies (Lee et al., 2020). Anger is a common antecedent for perpetrators of domestic violence, with one study finding that “feeling angry” was the most subscribed to antecedent in the category of internal factors as well as compared to all other antecedent categories (Bonem et al., 2008).

Jealousy is another common motivator of domestic violence (Harned, 2001; Rodriguez et al., 2015). As jealousy can be associated as a sign of love, jealousy-related aggression is often considered understandable, in some cases even extending to the acceptance of emotional and sexual abuse (Puente & Cohen 2003). Attachment theory provides a theoretical framework for understanding associations between trust and jealousy in romantic relationships. As one of four attachment styles, those with an anxious attachment style have a fear of abandonment, worry that close others cannot be relied on, and experience intense and chronic fear of rejection. The results of a study conducted in 2015 showed that upon experiencing distrust in one's partner, those with an anxious attachment style were more likely to become jealous, snoop through their partner's belongings, and become psychologically abusive (Rodriguez et al., 2015).

Self-defence and retaliation
For women, self-defence is often reported as the most common motivator behind domestic violence (Stuart et al., 2006; Swan & Snow, 2003). One study conducted in 2006 found that 38.7% of women who were perpetrators of violence against their partner stated that self-defence was one of the reasons they did so (Stuart et al, 2006). However, studies have determined that male perpetrators of domestic violence also report self-defence as a motivator, with the results of some studies showing that men and women were equally as likely to physical violence as a form of self-defence (Harned, 2001; Kernsmith, 2005).

While retaliation and self-defence have been considered as similar concepts, retaliation goes beyond the motive of self-defence and includes retribution for something that one’s partner has done, which is considered an act of revenge with legal consequences (Leisring & Grigorian, 2016). For both men and women, retaliating for emotional hurt is a common motivator in perpetrating violence (Shorey et al., 2010).

One of the challenges of identifying motivators of domestic violence is that they are internal experiences that can sometimes be hard to discern. For example, one meta-analysis noted that anger as a motivator was often collapsed with retaliation, jealousy and other emotional dysregulation problems (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2012).

Another problem that can be faced by studies attempting to identify motivators is that social desirability can influence the responses of perpetrators, whereby they may be able to identify these motives but choose not to admit to them when faced with a self-report measure or face-to-face interview (Arias & Beach, 1987).

While this chapter provides an overview of the main motivators of domestic violence, there are several other potential motivators that are less reported, including an inability to communicate feelings, to gain partner’s attention, because it was sexually arousing, to play with or tease one's partner, to prove love to one’s partner, and because of alcohol or drug use (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2012; Shorey et al., 2010).

Intervention and prevention of domestic violence
Economic independence and access to alternative sources of housing are two factors in violence prevention that have been restricted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of increased job losses and unemployment, victims of domestic violence are often left unable to sever ties with their abusive partner due to a lack of alternative sources of economic support. Public health restrictions have led to shelters and hotels reducing their capacity or shutting down, and travel restrictions have limited victims' access to friends and family (Evans et al., 2020).

Using the ecological model for understanding violence assists in determining the factors that contribute to this behaviour and as such, identifying possible points of intervention. There are three levels of intervention that can be applied to prevention strategies:


 * Primary prevention (so that the behaviour never occurs)
 * Secondary prevention (so that the behaviour doesn't occur again)
 * Tertiary prevention (so that the episode of behaviour doesn't get worse and function is restored) (Mitchell & Anglin, 2009)

Individual approaches
Preventing violence at the individual level ensures that people can resolve differences and conflicts without resorting to violence. This can be achieved through encouraging healthy attitudes and behaviour in children and young people, and changing attitudes and behaviour in individuals who have already become violent (Krug et al., 2002). Implementing education programs in children and young people is vital because adolescence is a crucial period in terms of women’s and men’s formation of healthy, non-violent relationships later in life (Flood & Pease, 2006). Programs designed to help children and adolescents develop social skills, manage anger, resolve conflicts and develop a moral perspective should be implemented in schools as a primary intervention. Treatment programs for perpetrators of domestic violence can be used as secondary and tertiary prevention methods. Such programs typically use a group format to discuss gender issues and teach skills such as anger management and taking responsibility for one’s actions (Krug et al., 2002).

Relationship approaches
Relationship approaches typically target problems within families and the negative influence of peers. Peer education and mentoring programs are useful strategies in primary intervention especially in targeting group norms involving dating, masculinity, violence and gender equality. Increasing interpersonal sanctions, in which friends and relatives strongly condemn domestic violence, and using positive role models in positions of leadership can increase the success of these programs (Flood & Pease, 2006).

Community approaches
Community approaches to preventing domestic violence aim to raise public awareness, stimulate community action, address the social and material causes of violence in the local environment, and make provision for the care and support of victims (Krug et al., 2002). Educational campaigns tailored for specific settings such as universities, workplaces, and health care and other institutions have the potential to encourage disclosure of domestic violence, normalise help-seeking, increase feelings of safety, reduce perceived tolerance of violence towards intimate partners, and increase tangible aid and social support (Niolon et al., 2017).

Societal approaches
Societal approaches to reduce violence focus on cultural, social and economic factors, and how these factors shape different settings and entire communities (Krug et al., 2002). While deep-rooted cultural norms and attitudes can be slow to change, they form a vital part of reducing the prevalence of domestic violence. There is a multitude of norms that need to be addressed, including gender inequality, toxic masculinity, and the portrayal of violence in film and television. Implementing large-scale media campaigns to increase awareness of the issue of domestic violence, encourage appropriate attitudes and behaviours, and provide information on how victims and perpetrators can seek support is one method of reducing the prevalence of domestic violence. Changes to legislation and policy is another approach that can reduce the prevalence of domestic violence, through strengthening legal responses to violence, enforcing strict barriers to firearm access for perpetrators of domestic violence, introducing strong prohibitions on the portrayal of violence and sexual violence in the media, and implementing policy changes for increased funding towards domestic violence programs.

Conclusion
Domestic violence refers to acts of physical, sexual, emotional and psychological abuse that occur within intimate relationships and take place in domestic settings. Research has shown that the majority of perpetrators are male, while the majority of victims are female. Risk factors associated with perpetrators of domestic violence can occur on an individual, relationship, community and societal level. While domestic violence is commonly associated with physical abuse, it also includes sexual, psychological, social, economic and spiritual abuse. Domestic violence can be motivated by multiple factors, including a need to maintain power and control, express negative emotions, defend oneself, or retaliate as an act of revenge. Interventions and preventative measures can occur on three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. A variety of possible interventions can be implemented by approaching the issue of domestic violence at individual, relationship, community and societal levels.