Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Effectance motivation

Overview


The study of motivation is important in understanding most aspects of human behaviour. Motivation is a general term used to describe the mechanism by which individuals and groups choose particular behaviour (McInerney, 2019). Many theories have been developed over time to help us understand how to achieve positive motivation and behaviour that can permeate all areas of human endeavour. A significant contribution to the field of motivation is that of Robert W. White who coined the concept of effectance motivation. This chapter explains effectance motivation and its implications for everyday life. Effectance motivation is a theory defined as a tendency to explore and influence one's environment. It argues that organisms are intrinsically motivated to engage in interactions with their physical and social environments. Robert W. White developed this theory to acknowledge what he believes to be, powerful motivational forces intrinsic to the organism (Harter, 1978). The theory explains behaviours such as exploration, curiosity, mastery, play and an individuals attempt to deal competently with one's environment (Pearlman, 1982). Through effectance motivation, one should gain a sense of 'competence', satisfied by feelings of 'efficacy' as perceived by the individual. Researchers in this field often use the terms competence and effectance interchangeably, as they often describe the same or similar concepts (Hart, 2021).

What is Effectance motivation?
Effectance motivation refers to the desire for effective interaction with the environment, including the tendency to investigate matters of concern, to master techniques or skills, or to engage fully in the environment in general. The need to deal effectively with the environment is intrinsic and produces inherent pleasure when gratified (Harter, 1978).

Facets of effectance motivation

1.      The organisms desire to produce an effect on the environment

2.      The added goal of dealing effectively or competently with the environment and

3.      The resulting feelings of efficacy

(Harter, 1978)

Essentially White determined that effectance motivation involves having an inherent psychological urge to make things happen and to have an impact on the world (Stretson, 2013).

History of Effectance motivation
Robert W. White (1959) was an American Psychologist who's primary area of research centered around personality. He is most known for challenging existing motivational theories of the time and developing the concept of effectance motivation theory. In 1959, White developed a paper arguing that the traditional drive theory models of Hull as well as the psychoanalytic theory of Freud were incomplete and inadequate motivational models. White, therefore went on to present considerable evidence against traditional motivational theories, noting that such behaviours as "exploration, curiosity, mastery, play, and one’s genuine attempt to deal competently with one’s environment" could not adequately be explained by ideas such as the reduction of deficit motives, by secondary reinforcement or by anxiety reduction. Central to White's research was therefore grounded in the idea that these behaviours presented as an ‘urge toward competence’. White's ultimate goal was to provide a more comprehensive explanation of the motivational aspect of competence (Harter, 1978) therefore propose the new motivational construct he labelled ‘effectance’. He viewed this motive as one which urges the organism toward competence and was satisfied by a feeling of efficacy. Furthermore, he considered this need to deal effectively with the environment as being intrinsic, and one which produced inherent pleasure.

In the 1970's Susan Harter, furthered this concepts of effectance motivation by operationalising the construct for empirical study. This resulted in the development of a much more comprehensive representation of effectance theory, compartmentalising and exploring real world applications or  the theory (Stretson, 2013). Among these concepts Harter's approach made the distinction between,  challenge, success and failure. Harter also contributed to a range of studies testing effectance in children of different ages deducing that the preference for success was a developmental aspect of effectance motivation (Harter, 1978).

Igor Kusyszyn (1990) was another influential figure in the progression of effectance, interpreting the theory as the need to confirm one's own existence as a part of the universe. Kusyszyn suggested that we are able to affirm that we are alive and have worth (Stretson, 2013). Kusysyn's theory postulates three main points of effecntance need, the need to have an effect on other individuals, the need to have an effect on inanimate objects and a need to competently affect ourselves (Stretson, 2013). Another interesting component of Kusyszyn was the notion that humans prefer to exercise minimal effort wherever possible. He coined this term the principal of least effort. He believed that individuals preferred to achieve maximum effect with minimal effort otherwise known as "efficient effectance" (Stretson, 2013). Harter specialised more so in studying effectance in adults and more specifically adults who are motivated by gambling.

The study of Effectance motivation is relatively new however remains of significant interest to personality psychologists and researchers.

Importance of Intrinsic motivation


Whilst exploring the theory of effectance motivation and its implications, the question arises to which degree someone is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. White's theory of effectance centers on the idea that one is intrinsically motivated and therefore the study of intrinsic motivational systems becomes of particular interest. Intrinsic motivation is defined as a behavior that is inherently satisfying. It is the motivation for an individual to engage in an activity authentically and from within an individuals personal sense of satisfaction and achievement. In contrast to this, extrinsic motivation refers to when an individual is motivated to perform an activity on the assumption that there will be a social element such as positive feedback or financial reward or incentives (Reiss, 2012). As depicted in figure 2, two children are playing a game of soccer. One of the children appear to be playing and enjoying the intrinsic value of the game while the other is playing with the primary focus of winning a trophy at the end.

Hull-Spence's Drive reduction theory of thirst, hunger, sex, and pain/anxiety avoidance is often associated with extrinsic motivation while non-survival needs comprise intrinsic motivation (Reiss, 2012). Non-survival needs include those same key concepts of white's Effectance motivation, competence, autonomy, curiosity, and play. Researchers have identified however, that some forms of extrinsic motivation can undermine a person’s intrinsic motivation (Reiss, 2012). A meta-analysis conducted by Deci et al,1999 confirmed exactly that, that rewards were somewhat harmful to intrinsic sources of motivation, often overtaking an individual's desire to engage in an activity for the pure experience of satisfaction towards the task itself (Deci, 1971). Similarly, findings have shown that those who are primarily motivated by extrinsic motivators are more likely to discontinue working towards goals once a reward has expired and there is no motivation left to continue towards mastery (Lee, et.al, 2010).

This concept therefore of intrinsic motivation is key in understanding White's effectance motivation. Personality researchers have acknowledged that from birth we are active, intrigued and playful, even in the absence of rewards (Harter, 1978). Ryan et al, 2000 goes on to define intrinsic values as an inherent tendency allowing individuals to seek out and explore challenges, exercise and develop ones abilities (Ryan et al., 2000). Children are of course the best indicator of intrinsic behaviours as they are often able to perform actions before they are developmentally ready to learn or be influenced by external forces (Ryan et al., 2000).

Concept of Mastery
A broad range of research has demonstrated that even toddlers and grade-school children show pleasure when mastering difficult tasks (Marguerite, 1998). Effectance motivation highlights the innate drive for individual's to achieve mastery within ones environment. It is argued by Psychologist that mastery orientation is highly adaptive and therefore individuals who possess this quality are likely to seek out challenges and opportunities to develop and improve ones self (Lubinski & Persson Benbow, 2000). Furthermore it is suggested that if mastery is not achieved  children are more likely to miss important competencies in later childhood (Malakoff, 1998). Mastery motivation is often referred to as curiosity, competence and intrinsic motivation however each term represents its own theoretical framework. One key distinction between mastery and effectence however that is important to acknowledge here is that effectance is described as intrinsic and instinctual, while mastery is learned (Stretson, 2013).

Real world implications
We should now start to see the importance of effectance motivation and how it might impact on our lives in a practical way. The implications of effectance motivation can be seen from early infancy all the way through adulthood. Effectance can be seen in the most basic exploratory play in infants, in the more complex behaviours of teens and even in career choices of adults. The following section explores more deeply through psychological research the consequences of Effectance motivation.

Effectance motivation in education


In the late 1970s, Susan Harter extended White’s theory to develop a more complete framework that she initially identified as effectance motivation theory but was later more commonly referred to as competence motivation theory. Harter, 1978 explores effectance motivation theory within the educational setting, undertaking her research among a group of children. Her research found that feelings of efficacy were not necessarily derived from objective success and competence. Rather, satisfaction and pleasure were maximised when success was achieved on more difficult tasks. It was identified that stronger motivation and feelings of efficacy were achieved when the child had chosen and succeeded in tasks that were deemed too difficult. Harter, also went on to explore the degree to which a child is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and suggested that extrinsic rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation in young children. She suggested more specifically that younger children may become developmentally dependent on external reinforces to provide various functions but that as a child gets older they are then able to develop their own self reward system and mastery of goals. Harter suggested that further motivational research was required with regard to ones developmental perspective (Harter, 1978).

Believe it or not but conquering a difficult task could be a seen as a good motivator, particularly if the task was seen to be too difficult or beyond that person’s capabilities. When an individual is able to put their mind to it and achieve something they did not think was possible, the term effectance motivation can be seen in practice. The overall success or motivation that can be determined does not come from external forces but rather internal feelings of overcoming a difficult task well. Harter referred to this as the "optimal degree of challenge" (Stretson, 2013) It is the desire of an individual to be effective, but it is also his or her intent to take pleasure out of that accomplishment. Therefore, solving a harder, more challenging problem is more satisfying for one who is effectance motivated (Pearlman, 1982). This is important information to consider when we are thinking about how we present school tasks to children and how we adapt motivational theories based on a child's developmental stage. Building effectance motivation in early preschool years has been positively correlated to improved self-evaluation skills and therefore important consideration should be given (Malakoff, 1998).

When preparing for academic success therefore, effectance motivation may be key. Classroom culture relies on these very concepts we have been discussing for effective learning, self motivation, independent learning, delay of external gratification and persistence at difficult tasks (Malakoff, 1998).

Impact of environmental factors
Research has also demonstrated that environmental factors such as poverty or maltreatment can effect the development of effectance motivation. According to White, the development of effectance motivation can be negatively impacted when affectional or security drives are unmet. Trauma, heightened anxiety levels and mental illness have all been associated with lower levels of effectance motivation (Malakoff, 1998). Similarly, children from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds have been identified as exhibiting less effectance motivation than other middle-class children. Research has suggested therefore that targeted early interventions that focusses on motivational concepts such as effectance can lead to higher numbers of children completing their education, higher rates of employment after high school and improved rates of individuals undertaking higher education pathways.

Stetson, 2013 undertook an important study incorporating a systematic and critical analysis of adolescence and juvenile delinquency, and by incorporating theory of effectance motivation with special attention paid to implicit links (Stetson, 2013). His study goes on to present an integrated theory of effectance motivation in relation to adolescence-limited delinquency and implications for practice with delinquent and at risk youth. He also explores the social context in which many American adolescents are raised disrupts the fulfillment of their effectance needs and lead to the surge in criminality that has been observed in the adolescent years (Stetson, 2013). While there are many different reasons adolescence choose to engage in criminal behaviour, effectance motivation may be a contributor. Stetson proposes therefore that interventions and supports for these young people should seek to address potential issues of unfulfilled effectance needs in order to improve ones circumstances and capabilities. He notes two vital areas to be assessed, the degree to which an individual adolescent experiences effectance need and second the degree to which that need is met (Stetson, 2013).

Further implications
There is an increasing amount of research that suggest that effectance needs and efficacy experiences have a profound effect on health, happiness, success and overall wellness for all humanity. Tools to aid in the assessment of effectance motivation continue to improve with better research and recourses available across all areas of the study of motivation.

What have we learned?
So far you have learned about Effectance motivation theory and its implications. Hence the following quizzes will test your knowledge on these concepts using case studies and other figures.

Case studies
The following fictional case studies aim to assist readers with theory-in-action by providing examples of effectance motivation.

Jo has been working for the same employee for the past 10 years. She has become extremely good at her job and strives to complete tasks on time and to a high standard. Jo has not received much praise for the work that she does and in fact gets very minimal external reward. She enjoys her job and the internal satisfaction that she feels when she completes her working day. Jo's coworker however notes feeling very unsatisfied by the work and has requested a greater financial reward in order to continue her employment.

In this scenario Jo would be identified as having greater effectance motivation while she tries to gain positive feelings of competence while her coworker strives to gain financially incentives and motivation.

"Laurent examines a watch chain. He first explores it with his fingers, and the begins to swing it. He attempts a number of experiments with it: grasping it with one hand while swinging it with the other, letting it slide along his hand and drop off the edge, shaking it violently, pulling it along his quilt, and dropping it from carious heights, always with a keen interest in how the chain is affected by his actions" (Stretson, 2013, p. 32).

According to effectance motivation, Laurent begins to gain an understanding of how physical objects interact with one another and how he can use his hands to make change. The goal in this scenario is not to learn however, but to experience the satisfying feeling of efficacy.

Short quiz
Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": {Effectance motivation refers to the desire for effective interaction with the environment, including the tendency to investigate matters of concern, to master techniques or skills, or to engage fully in the environment in general. + True - False
 * type=""}

{Those high in effectance motivation strive to work for personal satisfaction rather than physical rewards. + True - False
 * type=""}

{Those high in effectance motivation select moderate levels of challenge rather than very easy or very difficult tasks. - Extrinsic + Intrinsic
 * type=""}

Conclusion
Individuals with greater levels of effectance motivation are more likely to have greater self-confidence, take on more challenging problems and experience higher levels of efficacy. The theory of effectance motivation hopes to strengthen our own personal desire to achieve feelings of competence and efficacy with the physical and social environment. It is intrinsic to ones being and produces inherent feelings of pleasure and gratification. In order to satisfy effectance motivation one is to attain mastery of one's environment. It is evident within the research that effectance motivation is crucial in a child's development and has significant implications for individuals as they grow and enter their adult life. Opportunities to grow and nurture effectance in young children, through schooling and other environments, improve capabilities and outcomes not only in children but throughout later life. Effectance motivation plays an important role in academic success, success in employment as well as many other areas of our every day lives.