Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Endurance sport motivation

Overview
Elite athletes break the boundaries of what is possible with the human body. With the boundaries of human performance being pushed, the training and stress to the body is enormous. Which poses the question 'what are the motivational factors that drive humans to push the envelope of the impossible?' This chapter uncovers the factors motivating endurance athletes to compete and train in a sport where the pain is pleasure, focusing on psychological theory as the backbone for research in this area. The chapter uncovers key relationships between motivation types and how they influence the athlete as well as what type of motivation is the key to success. The investigation will also be placed on specific motivational theories that influence an individual, questioning if there is a specific theory that outlines the main effects on endurance sports (Aicher et al., 2017).

Introduction of cases study

Sara is a 23-year-old female marathon runner who is currently studying psychology at the University of Canberra and is a member of the elite athlete program. She is unfamiliar with her motivation type, however, as she is part of the elite athlete program it is important for her to discover what drives her toward success.

Endurance and motivation


Endurance is the ability to undertake prolonged unpleasant or difficult process or situations without giving in (McCall & Lowe, 2009). The definition of Endurance explains the pain and suffering required to complete an endurance activity. Current research on "Endurance" does not provide information or explanation on the time frame for the classification of "Endurance," yet building endurance is crucial, demonstrating that it is not a skill you are born with but a skill or trait that is earned through hours of strenuous training (McCall & Lowe, 2009). Individuals can inherent pre dispositions to certain traits that help individuals develop skill quicker yet the development of endurance takes time and only a portion of that development is genetic (Costa, Breitenfeld, Silva, Pereira, Izquierdo & Marques, 2012)

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal orientated behaviours. It is what causes you to act in a particular way, whether that be reaching for a glass of water or running a marathon, there is always an end goal that motivates the behaviour. There are three main types of motivation seen within humanity, those being, Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Amotivation.

Intrinsic motivation - Is doing an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence. For example, an individual leaving the house for a run due to the fact that the inherent satisfaction of running is gained (Cerasoli et al., 2014).

Extrinsic motivation - Is a reward driven behaviour and is a type of operant conditioning that can be categorised by the motivation gained by external rewards for Medals, Money or Fame/Praise. External Factors are the driving force for extrinsic motivation. For example, a high level sports athlete competing for olympic medals and the incentives that come with that achievement (Cerasoli et al., 2014).

Amotivation - Amotivation is the complete absence of both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. Amotivation is not a specific psychiatric condition but it is a feeling that can be held toward certain activities. For example, an individual not having the drive to complete a task they have not even thought about doing it (Cerasoli et al., 2014).

Intrinsic-Extrinsic Synthesis - This concept suggest that motivation is not confined to rigid categories of pure intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, but instead exists on a dynamic spectrum between these two extremes. It acknowledges that activities often perceived as purely intrinsic can sometimes be influenced by extrinsic factors and  activities seemingly driven by extrinsic motives can still evoke intrinsic enjoyment or fulfillment.

Endurance sport classification
There are two specific systems used within humans when completing exercise, the Anaerobic System and Aerobic System. In endurance sports, the human body uses the Aerobic System. It is important to note the difference between the two systems. The Anaerobic System can be classified as no oxygen and no lactate and is fuelled by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is used for short high power sports (Nguyen & Khanal 2018). Endurance sport on the other hand uses the Aerobic System. This system uses carbohydrates and fats and in some cases of extreme exertion proteins are used by the body as its fuel source meaning it can be sustained for longer periods of time (Serresse et al., 1988). Endurance sports are sports completed over a longer period of time generally surpassing 10 minutes of sustained energy (McCall & Lowe, 2009). Examples of Endurances sport are long distance running events 1500m and over and long distance swimming events over 800m (see figure 1) and cycling over 3km.

Quiz 1
Quiz Time {From the below list, what is defined as the ability to endure prolonged unpleasant or difficult process or situations without giving way?} - Motivation - Personality + Endurance

{From the below list, what is the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-orientated behaviours?} - Intrinsic Motivation + Motivation - Pain vs. Pleasure

{What is defined as completing an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence?} - Extrinsic Motivation - Introverted personality + Intrinsic Motivation

{What reward-driven behaviour, is a type of operant conditioning, motivation gained by external rewards for Medals, Money or Fame/Praise?} + Extrinsic Motivation - Intrinsic Motivation - Extroverted Personality

{What motivation type is the natural state of the environment?} - Extrinsic Motivation + A-Motivation - Extroverted Personality

{From the below list, what sport classification is a 1500m swim defined as?} + Endurance Sport - Power Sport - Participation Sport

{What zone does a road cyclist use?} + Aerobic zone - ATP - PC

{The following phrase, "I'm really excited to go to the pool for some recreational laps this afternoon" demonstrates what kind of motivation?} - Extrinsic Motivation + Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation theories and endurance sports
There are a number of motivational theories that assist with explaining the drive that makes an individual compete in an endurance sport. The key differences between the ERG model and McClelland's Learned Needs will be unpacked to explain the motivation behind endurance sports, as well as the relationship between Pain and Pleasure within endurance athletes.

Pain and pleasure


Developing relationships between two different variables that directly promote an individual to succeed in an endurance sport allows for an understanding between the aspects of pain and pleasure within elite endurance athletes. Pain and Pleasure don't seem to be two words people would generally associate together, yet in a sporting context pain can lead to pleasure (Bale, 2006). Pushing the barrier of what is humanly bearable in regards to the pain threshold for many is not seen to be something that is a "pleasurable experience" yet harvesting the mentality of turning a painful experience and rendering it pleasurable is the mindset that sporting champions often poses (McNarry et al., 2020) (See figure 1.5). Creating links and forming relationships that explain how pain can be a motivator when turned into pleasure can account for the success of some athletes within endurance sports. The experience of pain can benefit an individuals defence systems and allow individuals to have enhanced motivation to accumulate resources that ultimately lead to pleasure (McNarry et al., 2020). The actual terminology of "Pain is Pleasure" realistically isn't correct yet with painful experiences pleasurable out comes are a reward, like eating that piece of cake, meeting health goals or feeling the burn post run.

Motivational theories and endurance sport
Motivation is know to influence specific traits within an individual that ultimately lead to the pairing of a goal/ task for a desired outcome. Yet understanding the specific theories that have developed on the basis of explaining motivation is crucial for the understanding of human motivation. The definition of these two main theories ERG Theory and McClelland's Learned Needs, play a key role in explaining how and why an individual is motivated.

ERG

The ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness and growth) was developed by Alderfers on the back of Maslow's Hirachey of needs condensing the 5 human needs into 3 distinct categories. These categories are, Existence (material and Physiological), Relatedness (social and Internal esteem) and Growth ( Internal esteem and Self actualisation) (Ball, 2012). In a Motivation and endurance sport context the ERG model can explain in many ways the engagement in endurance sports for elite athletes in both the Existence and Relatedness categories. Existence to many individuals relies on an identity within ones self either as an individual athlete or within a group with Alderfers ERG model explaining that many aspects of an individuals motivation come from the desire to be associated with a specific interpersonal group. Growth needs are also evident within an endurance sport setting, with prolonged need to better times and be ever so slightly lighter to raise the power to weigh ration.

McClelland's Learned Needs

McClelland's theory of learned needs, is a three stage theory, Need for Affiliation, Need for Power and Need for Achievement. McClelland's theory was developed based on individuals who are achievement driven on the desire of mastery. Individuals engage in these activities on the basis that their achievements are a result of hard work rather than luck (Osemeke & Adegboyega, 2012). This theory has strong links between individuals competing in endurance sports and the motivation for these individuals to push themselves. The Need to Achieve and the Need for power is demonstrated in high level athletes competing for the top spot in their sport (Osemeke & Adegboyega, 2012). Motivational factors within high level athletes are not the need for affiliation, this can be seen at club level sports, yet high level athlete have a need for power and achievement (Osemeke & Adegboyega, 2012). Power and Achievement within McClelland's theory not only relate to the difficulty of the task but are also associated with a mind set for striving to better ones self through application rather than luck.

Case study
Sara is trying to discover what drives her to succeed. There are many ways in which discovering a motivator can be done yet self-discovery can be a difficult task, however, if done individually it can give an individual the upper hand.

Sara is a 23-year-old marathon runner studying Psychology at the University of Canberra, she loves to train with friends and she finds that if her peers are not at training she is not as motivated to push her self. Her coach is always wanting her to do more solo training due to the fact it will help her running in the long term, yet she finds it difficult to complete whole sessions due to the fact there is no support for her during these training sessions. {In McClelland's three needs, where would you place Sara?} - Need for Achievement + Need for Affiliation

{What theory best describes Sara's motivation?} + McClelland Learned Needs - ERG Theory

Key theory bank
ERG Theory - The ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness and growth) was developed by Alderfers on the back of Maslow's Hirachey of needs condensing the 5 human needs to 3 distinct categories, Existence (material and Physiological), Relatedness (social and Internal esteem) and Growth ( Internal esteem and Self actualisation) (Ball, 2012)

McClellands Learned Needs - McClelland's theory of learned needs, is a three stage theory, Need for Affiliation, Need for Power and Need for Achievement. McClelland's theory was developed on the basis of people who are strongly achievement based are driven on the desire of mastery, individuals engage in these activities on the basis that their achievements are a result of hard work rather then luck (Osemeke & Adegboyega, 2012)

Quiz 2
{Out of the traits below, which lines up most with McLellands Learned needs?} - Need for Fun + Need for Affiliation - Need for Journey

{ERG model stands for what?} - Environmentally Reasoned Growth - Externally Driven Reward + Existence Relatedness Growth

{What motivation theory is MORE success-driven?} + McClelland's Learned Needs - ERG

Motivation types and endurance sport
The drive to complete the gruelling training and competition of endurance sports has to come from somewhere and that "somewhere" is a motivation either Intrinsic or Extrinsic. These two motivation types very different and specific aspects of motivation play a pivotal role in their own unique ways within the mind of many different endurance athletes. Motivating individuals to compete at a participation level or at the highest level of any event takes on these two different aspects of motivation and in many ways it can influence the reason why an individual completes the event.

Why motivation is the most important aspect of endurance sport
Motivation for endurance athletes is crucial to the success and drive for them to train and compete to the best of their abilities. Both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation are crucial to man kind not only in everyday functioning but also within endurance sport and life as a whole. Motivation within endurance sport is mentally harder to harvest due to the pain and extended duration that individuals undertake within both training and racing.



The ability to harvest an individuals motivation helps to develop levels of extreme self-control, which is crucial to the development of a competitive edge over the other competitors (Taylor et al., 2017). Self-control is crucial to the success of an athlete. It is developed through making sacrifices to an individuals lifestyle in terms of diet, sleep and making changes to every day things for the love of the sport that the individual is competing in. The 1% competitive edge that can be the key to success in an endurance sport setting is the hardest part to an individuals motivation is key to reaching this mark (Taylor et al., 2017). Extrinsically motivated individuals are driven from external factors like, medals, money and making someone proud or happy (Taylor et al., 2017). This aspect of an individuals motivation can be seen in many top level athletes (see Figure 2).

Intrinsic motivation
The relationship between Intrinsic motivation and Endurance sport takes a path away from the traditional views. Intrinsic motivation is built on the basis for completing a task purely due to the fact of want and desire and not for the need to compete for medals and fame (Tsigilis, 2005). Intrinsic motivation is more of a drive for an individuals competing in social aspects of endurance sports rather then the drive to be number one (Tsigilis, 2005). It must however be noted that there are individuals who compete at the highest level of the sports who also gain motivation and compete for pure enjoyment and fulfilment the sport brings them (Tsigilis, 2005).

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic Motivation is defined as a reward driven behaviour, it is a type of operant conditioning, motivation gained by external rewards for medals, money or fame/praise (Pelletier, Tuson, Fortier, Vallerand, Briere & Blais, 1995) External Factors are the driving force for Extrinsic motivation. High level athletes compete at the upmost level of their sport for the gratitude and fames that comes with being the best. This drive for external recognition is an extrinsic motivation (Reiss, 2012).

Examples of this can be seen in Olympic medal winners, a whole life of dedication to the sport and specific disciple they compete in for that chance to gain the Olympic medal and the title that comes with it being "Olympic Champion". This display of dedication and ultimate sacrifice is a prime example of McClelland's Needs Theory seeing individuals making ultimate sacrifice for the fame and praise gained from the Need to Achieve (Pelletier, Tuson, Fortier, Vallerand, Briere & Blais, 1995).

An intrinsic and extrinsic mixture
A mixture of Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation is the ideal mix for competitors of sports at the highest level (Trainingpeaks.com). Intrinsically motivated individuals will find enjoyment in the participation of an endurance sport (Reeve, 1989). On the other hand, extrinsically motivated individuals will find drive and motivation form the external factors like money, medals and fame yet this drive can lead to burn out (Reeve, 1989). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can explain high levels of drive from external factors like fame and rewards and the internal drive of enjoyment and desire leads to heightened levels of endurance sport success (Aicher et al., 2017).

Competing at the highest level of a sport, that being running, swimming, cycling or any endurance sport, a positive mix of both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation is where you will find the perfect mix (Trainingpeaks.com). Intrinsic motivation holds the desire to complete the sport for enjoyment, and Extrinsic motivation for the desire to reach the highest level.

Quiz 3
Quiz Time

{Why is motivation important in endurance sport? } - It makes you healthier + Endurance sport takes sacrifice and dedication - It lets you eat more food

{What motivation is driven by reward?} + Extrinsic - Intrinsic

{An individual completing uni for the internal gratification of completing a difficult task is what type of motivation?} + Intrinsic - Extrinsic

Key word bank
- Intrinsic Motivation - is defined as doing an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. For example, an individual leaving the house for a run due to the fact that the inherent satisfaction of running is gained.

- Extrinsic Motivation - is defined as a reward-driven behaviour, it is a type of operant conditioning, motivation gained by external rewards for Medals, Money or Fame/Praise. External Factors are the driving force for extrinsic motivation. For example, a high-level sports athlete competing for Olympic medals and the incentives that come with that achievement.

- Amotivation - Is the natural state of the environment. Amotivation is the complete absence of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Amotivation is not a specific psychiatric condition but it is a feeling that can be held toward certain activities. For example, an individual not having a drive to complete a task they aren't even thinking about doing it.

Chapter Quiz
Quiz Time

{Endurance is classified as?} - A short burst of physical exertion - A sport that can be done individually + The ability to endure prolonged unpleasant or difficult processes or situations without giving way

{What sport would classify as Endurance?} - 100m Sprint + 15km Run - Shotput

{From the below list, what is defined as doing an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence?} - Extrinsic Motivation - Introverted personality + Intrinsic Motivation

{What does ATP-PC stand for?} + Adenosine Triphosphate - Phosphocreatine - Athletic Teams Play - Potentially Cheap - Adenosine Trio Phosphate - Phosphate Creatine

{From the list below, what is defined as a reward-driven behaviour, it is a type of operant conditioning, motivation gained by external rewards for Medals, Money or Fame/Praise. External Factors are the driving force for. For example, a high-level sports athlete competing for Olympic medals and the incentives that come with that achievement.} - Extroverted personality - Intrinsic motivation + Extrinsic Motivation

{ ("Blank") Is the natural state of the environment. --- is the complete absence of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. -- is not a specific psychiatric condition but it is a feeling that can be held toward certain activities. For example, an individual not having a drive to complete a task they aren't even thinking about doing it.} + A-motivation - Intrinsic Motivation - Extrinsic Motivation

{The experience of - can benefit our defence systems and allow us to enhance or motivation to accumulate resources that ultimately lead to pleasure such and calorie-rich food, also reducing guilt we feel after competing in self-indulgence.} - Pleasure - Endurance + Pain

{Self-restriction and sacrifice are common In Personality or Motivation?} + Motivation - Personality

Conclusion
Human beings are motivated from internal and external motives also know as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. These motivations are influential in the drive to compete as an endurance athlete. These intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not black and white in their explanations and backgrounds. A persons motivation type is yet another highly theoretically derived concept, that theories such as McClelland's Learned Needs and the ERG Model try to explain. These differing theories are both two out of the vast array of psychological theory that explain the phenomena of motivation. The concept of pain and pleasure is inherently associated with both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivated individuals. All these concepts form one big picture of what makes an individual an endurance athlete and what motivation is behind the training and competition.