Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image

Overview


Social media exposure has drastically changed the way that information and media are consumed. With this cultural change the consumption of fitness images and idealisation has also changed. Each time we view something we are inclined to compare and aspire ourselves to what speaks to our own body image and or insecurities in that moment. As a result, the current fitness and beauty industry is built on the premise that consumers believe their bodies are not enough as they are and can always be improved (see Figure 1). Current evidence suggests that fitspiration has become uniquely harmful in the way that it feeds into self-conscious emotions and low self-worth which teaches consumers to perceive their body as an object. This notion of fitspiration directly feeds into the epidemic of body image issues which contribute to well-being issues and eating disorders.

This chapter focusses on fitspiration and the emotional impact that it has on body image. Psychological theories alongside current research are explored as to how idealised images relating to physique and attractiveness impact an individual’s perceptions of themselves. Understanding what this means for social media users, particularly youth is vital as it can provide ways to increase positive body image and advocate ways to improve self esteem and higher sense of self worth.

Focus questions:
 * What is fitspiration?
 * What is body image?
 * What are the effects of fitspiration on body image?
 * What psychological theories are involved?
 * How can people develop a healthier emotional relationship with their body image?

What is Fitspiration?
Fitspiration is a term coined through social media that merges fitness and inspiration. It is occasionally shortened to fitspo. The term aims to inspire viewers to lead a healthier life style through most commonly exercise and healthy eating (Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. 2018). Fitspiration is often presented in photos of bodies idealising tone, abs, muscles, tan, health. The images are commonly consistent with current beauty standards which are positively portrayed across numerous media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, as well as television and advertisments. As a result of the traction fitspiration has gained, the culture it promotes has the potential to positively motivate consumers/observers but also majorly misinform and dangerously drive people to unhealthy behaviour.

Popularity and Culture
The term fitspiration became a popular internet buzz word in 2013. Ever since there have been increasing numbers of websites, pages and accounts capitalising on fitspiration. As of 2021 there are 2.3 million results on google and 19.4 million results on Instagram linked to the hashtag fitspiration. The images flooding social media typically portray attractive men and women who are tanned, toned, slim and muscly. These images are designed to promote viewers to aspire to and obtain ‘fit’ figures. Contrary to previous trend ‘thinspiration’ which encourages undereating and excessive weight loss, fitspiration makes some attempt to move away from this notion by promoting bulking, muscle gain, strength, fitness and gym engagement. The term began to saturate social media and was hyper commercialised to encourage viewers to purchase certain products to achieve the ideal figures promoted in the media. Further, the interactive nature of social media allows for influencers to have a close yet parasocial relationship with their followers, this repour  is encouraged as it has important implications for influences and their affiliations with brands. These ideals were endorsed from popular brands such as Victoria's Secret and Lululemon. As fitspiration has gained traction, viewers have been encouraged to partake in the fitspiration trend by uploading images of their own fitspiration journeys.

However, the demand for more body positive, diversity and inclusive portrayal in the media has been recently vocalised by viewers. Additionally, consumers have become aware of the motives behind the persuasive attempts to marketing. With this change Fitspiration appears to be the decline.

 {What two words is Fitspiration a combination of?}


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- Fitness + Motivation + Fitness + Inspiration - Fitness + Aspiration - None of the above

What is Body Image?


Every person has a body image. Body image is how a person see's themselves when they look in the mirror each morning, look at photos of themselves or how they see themselves in their own mind. For some people, it is natural to want to be attractive and for some people there is no ideal or standard. However, it is important to understand that body image refers to much more and is not limited to the concept of attractiveness (Green, 2017). Body image refers to a persons’ thoughts, feelings and perception to the sexual attractiveness, aesthetics of their own body, how they look and how they believe others perceive them (The Butterfly Foundation, 2021). Each person’s experience with body image is varied from another. People may feel different things about their body and their state of mind towards body image can be fixed or fluid, ranging from positive, satisfied, negative, dissatisfied and even neutral. As a result a person’s perception of their own body often effects how they engage with the world.

What influences Body Image?
Body image begins at a young age and constantly evolves. Many people subconsciously internalise what they hear, see and feel about their own bodies and others bodies from a young age (Green, 2017). This internalisation is then projected throughout a person’s lifetime which can then lead to positive or negative body image. Body image is often further influenced by several factors such as how they feel towards themselves, self-esteem, how others feel towards them, what friends, family and peers say about them and what they observe. Standards of beauty and attractiveness play a large role in influencing body image. Standards of beauty change over time, vary between cultures, genders and age cohorts. For example in western cultures, thin, youthful and slender bodies are highly valued markers of attractiveness for young women (see Figure 2) (Green, 2017). It is reported that universalistic targets, which are often portrayed in the media, television and magazines are more likely to be valued over particularistic targets stemming from intimate sources such as friends and family. This is reportedly due to universalistic standards being found to elicit more pressure to conform (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004).

Effects of Body Image
Having a healthy and positive body image is essential to emotional wellbeing both physically and mentally. Positive body image is important as it aids in the prevention of psychological disorders, eating disorders and overall wellbeing. The Australian Psychological Society found body image concerns are related to weight, shape, gender, ability and a range of other body parts or physical features (Paxton, 2011).

In some cases a person’s body image in their mind is not always congruent with what they see.

Some forms of body image disorders are Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Muscle Dysmorphia, Gender Dysphoria. Body image disorders have also been linked to eating disorders such as Anorexia Nervosa, Binge Eating Disorder and Bulimia.

Case Study
This case study will be used to exemplify how emotional psychological theories can explain the effects fitspiration has on a persons body image.

Jane is a 19 year old girl who has just started university full time. She is very shy and has suffered from low self-confidence which makes it difficult for her to make new friends in her classes. She has felt self-conscious of her body, particularly her weight, ever since she can remember and has always been a source of insecurity. She often uses social media platforms such as Instagram and Facebook and recently noticed the trending hashtag #fitspiration posts and feels that she isn’t beautiful because she is not as thin and strong as all of the people she sees on social media.

Jane felt inspired by these posts to make a change so she can feel the confidence that is portrayed by the girls she sees on her Instagram page. By doing this she feels that she will no longer be self-conscious of her weight, will feel better about herself and make more friends. She has decided that she will achieve this physique by completing two high intensity exercises a day and restricting her diet.

Jane quickly found out that her plan to exercise twice a day, eating minimal, low energy food was not attainable. She found it difficult to fit in her schedule of working and studying full time and became frustrated that she was not seeing results. She constantly felt low on energy, stressed and guilty when she could not fit in her workouts or ate food outside of her diet plan. The sense of guilt eventually became so consuming for Jane when she ate food that she would make herself sick after eating.

Self-discrepancy Theory
The Self Discrepancy theory is a cognitive motivational theory. Higgins focuses on three facets of the self which are comprised of the actual self, the ideal self and the ought self (See Figure 3)

The discrepancy between the actual, ideal and ought self is to some extent a predictor of self-esteem, can creates a sense of wanting to change and consequently drive people to engage in certain behaviour. The self-discrepancy theory is of particular value when looking at different discomforts people hold, different emotional vulnerabilities, discrepancies among self-belief and discomforts that people may suffer (Higgins, 1987). For example, it has been found that discrepancies existing between the actual and ought self are linked to emotions of anxiety, guilt and shame which are correlated to low self-esteem. Similarly, a discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal is linked to emotions of disappointment, frustration and depression.

The self-discrepancy theory plays a significant role in relation to body image and the emotional impact that fitspiration has on an individual in its attempts to motivate people to achieve an ideal body standard. In the realm of social media it is suggested that influencers and celebrities induce a sense of self-discrepancy in others as they hold higher social status’ and/or possess desired qualities (Aw & Chuah, 2021). Consequently, audiences perceive a discrepancy between the actual self and the idealised images promoted on social media that adhere to and promote appearance standards. This discrepancy felt by the viewer then creates a strong motivation to improve Jin, S. V., Muqaddam, A., & Ryu, E 2019. With the appearance focus that fitspiration promotes, as viewers compare themselves to individuals regarded as the ideal, they are more likely to experience depressive emotions such envy. Depressive emotions towards body image have been linked to body dissatisfaction and negative body image. Recent research conducted by Aw & Chuah, support this notion in their findings of a consumers self-discrepancy exposure to social media as they are unavoidably involved in social comparison (2021).

Individuals exhibiting low degrees of self-discrepancy have been found more susceptible to external influence, such as parasocial relationships, in an attempt to close the discrepancy gap between their actual and ideal self. Individuals exhibiting high degrees of self-discrepancy have been found less susceptible to external influence as they feel their ideal self is unachievable and so far removed (Aw & Chuah, 2021).

Applying this to the example of the case study, Jane exhibited low self-discrepancy and as a result begins to engage in behaviours that correlate with fitspiration as she was more susceptible to external influences of social media standards.

Social Comparison
The social comparison theory explains the is a psychological mechanism which presents a potential source of instability in the self-concept (Festinger, 1954,  It is one of the most prominent social psychological theories to date (Morse & Gergen, 1970). Social comparison research focuses on the comparative evaluation of a person's skills, opinions, personal attractiveness and general value as a human being. Social comparison is the comparison of the self with others in our environment (friends, family, peers or mass media) to assess their own personal worth. Comparison of the self can occur in two ways, upward and downward. Upward social comparison refers to when an individual looks to others better than themselves. Downward comparison refers to when an individual looks to others not as good for self enhancement, self-protection or to feel better.

Social comparison often occurs in a mediated context such as fitspiration and is important to understand the role it plays in influencing viewers emotions and behaviour towards their own body image. For example viewers of fitspiration content are inclined to make upward social comparisons and consequently feel inspired and motivated to adopt modelled behaviours. This can include increasing exercise, changing diet, lifestyle changes, self-expression changes (clothing, This upward comparison is made so the self can become more like that person being looked to. Alternatively, adverse effects of upward social comparison can include feeling negative about the self in comparison to who we view as better which can spark negative self-talk, self-worth and self-esteem. Often these negative emotions are likely predictors that of engagement in competasory behaviours evident in eating disorders and symptoms (Corning, A. F., Krumm, A. J., & Smitham, L. A. (2006).

Jane was making upward social comparisons to the influencers seen on her Instagram pages. She initially felt motivated to make a lifestyle change and as a result begins to engage in behaviours that were modelled by these influencers. Eventually she began to feel the adverse effects of upward comparisons when began to engage in negative self-talk and had low self-worth.

Fitspiration and Body Disatisfaction
There is reason for concern as to how fitspiration impacts viewers and their own body image. Fitspiration is designed to inspire and motivate viewers to exercise, and eat healthily in order to accomplish empowered body image. However, current literature and research suggests the model of fitpsiration fails to reach its goal and contrarily has adverse effects (Tiggemann, Zaccardo, 2018). Fitspiration places a large emphasis on visual aesthetics of the body in these images which consistently endorse lean, strong, muscular and conventionally thin physiques; which are unattainable for most people. The repeated promotion of this typical body suggests that only people that look similar can be deemed fit, healthy and worthy of such a lifestyle.

As a result fitspiration becomes problematic in relation to body image as concern of a person’s shape and weight have been found central factors that contribute to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Tiggermann and Zaccardo (2018) conducted a study on fitspiration imagery and the effects on Women’s health and reported exposure to fitspiration images were correlated to negative mood, lower appearance related self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. The study concluded that the reported observed body dissatisfaction stemmed from upward comparisons made to the images presented and suggested that the added ideals of muscle and tone to pre-existing thin ideals allowed for inadequacy to be experienced by viewers in more ways. Further studies have validated this correlation as exemplified by a recent study on British students that investigated health effects of fitspiration and found that the emphasis on one body aesthetic contributes to body dysmorphia  and dissatisfaction in viewers who do not resemble the figure (Limniou, Mahoney, & Knox, 2021).

Fitspiration and Eating Disorders


The correlation between fitspiration and body image has been extensively investigated for its influence on disordered eating. Body image concerns and eating disorders are escalating rapidly among individuals (Chatzopoulou, Filieri, & Dogruyol,, 2020). While there is currently no single cause and effect of eating disorders development, fitspiration has been investigation for its negative impact and promotion of disordered eating. It is suggested that the nature of fitspiration images to promote a lifestyle of healthy eating and exercise has unintended negative consequences. These consequences have been associated with the promotion of eating disorders through fitspiration images themselves and accompanying text that instils shame in the viewer and their own body image (Body image Online, 2004).

The majority of images and the text that accompany posts related to fitspiration normalise restrained eating and excessive exercise (Boepple, Ata, Rum, & Thompson, 2016). The accompanying text is exemplified in posts such as “no pain, no gain”, “strong is the new skinny”, “the only bad workout is one that didn’t happen” and “be stronger than excuses”. These quotes are found to endorse and explicitly promote people to engage in healthy and fit lifestyles through eating well and excessive exercise based on the desire to emulate the associated image on display (Tiggemann, & Zaccardo, 2018). A common way that people initially engage in this healthy lifestyle is to diet. A diet is to change the eating habits for a short or long period of time with the goal of changing (gaining or losing) weight. Diets are often seen as a socially acceptable way of taking control and aspiring to be healthy (Body image Online, 2004). Common eating disorders identified as stemming from restrictive eating (also classified as mental disorders) were anorexia nervosa, bulimia, binge eating disorder and body dysmorphia.

A study specifically investigation the correlation between eating disorders and fitspiration conducted a study with two control groups, one of women with pre-existing eating disorders and the other without, was conducted to investigate tendencies of engaging in eating disorders (Corning, Krumm, & Smitham, 2006). The study found that the tendency to develop eating disorders was heightened in women with pre-existing eating disorder symptoms when making social comparisons. This was assumed to be due to exhibited low self-esteem when comparing their own body to another woman’s body. The likelihood to engage in social comparison was less likely by women who did not exhibit pre-existing eating disorder symptoms. Consequently it can be suggested that fitspiration related posts are likely to propel individuals to engage in eating disorder behaviours or increase their risk of developing them (Boepple, Ata, Rum, & Thompson, 2016). Despite fitspiration having the potential to motivate and encourage healthy eating habits there have been several identified negative aspects of fitspiration that concern disordered eating.

Age
Current research suggests that age has no impact on body image. However, the role social media has in the consumption and utilisation of fitspiration images is heavily influenced by age. Social media is particularly targeted to younger demographics (generation Z) and consequently vastly influences the self-esteem of younger generations (Limniou, Mahoney, & Knox, 2021). Further it is suggested that fitspiration and subsequent social comparisons exacerbate pre-existing issues such as bullying and teasing that occur during adolescence and social comparison adds additional pressures concerning body image during this time (Menzel, Schaefer, Burke, Mayhew, Brannick, & Thompson, 2010).

Gender
The majority of current literature investigates a link between body image and fitspiration with a focus on females (Tiggemann, & Anderberg, 2020). Current images returned when searching the internet for the fitspiration hashtag are of women. However the limited information investigating men and fitspiration effects on body image reported findings consistent of that with that of women in social comparison and self-discrepancy. As a result of the researched demographic there is limited capacity to comment on the impact of findings and extrapolate to all people as current data is primarily targeted and based on studies on women. However a study reported a comparison in the consumption of fitspiration content between men and women both made comparisons between the self and the image which impacted their body image and reported gender to not be a factor (Limniou, Mahoney, & Knox, 2021). For men viewing bare and muscular chests prompted social upward comparisons that lead to lower body satisfaction. Additionally for women, the more edited an image was the more likely upward social comparison was to occur and induce lower body satisfaction (Tiggemann, & Anderberg, 2020). Consequently, direction for future study would be to increase research in this field to fill the existing gap. However it can be inferred that gender is found to not be a determinative predictor of body satisfaction and all people can be impacted. Consequently a future direction for further study would be across both genders.

Future Implications
As fitspiration continues to have high engagement among viewers, fitspirational content play a majorly impactful role in body image and body satisfaction. As a result it is particularly important for healthy positive body image to be modelled. This can be done by engaging in behaviours that benefit and boost body confidence and esteem.



By exposing edited and unrealistic images people will no longer be as inclined to make upward comparisons. There is an urgent need for transparency and inclusion of realistic body types and diversity on all media platforms. The main takeaway from this chapter is to minimise the distorted perceptions of what people should look like. People need to be protected from the harmful effects of fitspiration ideals which are saturating media platforms. One way this can be done is to use media literary (such as captions on images). Media literacy can be a buffer against negative emotions and self-esteem after viewing fitspiration posts and images.

Conclusion
Fitspiration is a major part of social media culture and shapes the ways people interact with it. Current studies suggest that fitspiration Fitspration is liked  to have a negative impact body image. This negative impact is through the often unrealistic ideation of what is modelled as healthy, strong, resilient and beautiful people.

Based on psychological theory such as self-discrepancy theory and the social comparison theory can be used to help explain why people are susceptible to the effects of fitspiration and

It is important to acknowledge that fitspiration can be inspiring and help people become healthier and create healthy habits. However, moving forward it is important to be mindful as to how people can be protected from the negative impact it can have on one’s self and consequently their body image.

Take home messages:
 * Fitspiration has been linked to negative body image
 * Social comparison and self-discrepancy can be applied to explain why people are impacted and susceptible
 * Can be used for motivational purposes however fails for majority as it promotes unrealistic and unattainable standards