Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fulfilling potential

Overview
Humans not only strive to survive, they strive to thrive (Rogers, 1951). The want to thrive has led to an enormous growth of positive psychology research, specifically into the fulfillment of personal potential. Fulfilling potential is seen as life’s highest calling and ultimately fosters happiness (Krems, 2017). The environment, behaviour, mindset, and cognitions of a person, all effect their personal potential fulfillment. In order to fulfill personal potential, one must assess all aspects of their life and take action to improve it.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the first motivational theories to address human growth (Maslow, 1962). He coined the term self-actualisation which refers to the highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is reached. Further research into Maslow’s theory provided evidence to divide the hierarchy into two categories; deficiency needs and growth needs (Sheldon et al., 2001; Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). Maslow proposed six behaviours to help achieve self-actualisation. One of the behaviours; make growth choices, draws similarities with growth mindset theory.

Dweck’s growth mindset theory states that people’s abilities, personality, and intelligence can be developed and improved (Dweck, 2006). The theory is supported by modern research and provides insight into how people can fulfill their potential (Li et al, 2019; Renaud & McConnell, 2007; Wood, 2000).

Setting difficult, specific, and congruent goals has been found to be effective in fulfilling potential (Koestner et al, 2002). Promotion of one's strengths along with repairing weaknesses is essential to enhance personal growth (Reeve, 2018). This involves changing one's environment, interpersonal relationships, and solving motivational and emotional problems.

Modern literature has identified spirituality as a potential fulfilling behaviour (Ivtzen et al, 2013). Autonomy and openness to experience are fundamental characteristics of both spirituality and self-actualisation (Piedmont, 2001).


 * Focus questions
 * How can you adopt a growth mindset?
 * What behaviours can you adopt to fulfill potential?
 * How can you make your goals more specific, difficult, and congruent?
 * How can you create a psychologically safe environment for yourself?
 * What are your strengths that you can promote?
 * What are your weaknesses that you can work to overcome?

Self-actualisation
Maslow's (1962) hierarchy of needs aims to understand human growth. The hierarchy starts from the bottom and finishes at the top with the highest level of growth. On the bottom level of the pyramid is physiological needs, next are safety needs, then love/belonging, esteem, and finally self-actualisation. The characteristics of self-actualisation include; morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, and lack of prejudice. Throughout literature, potential fulfillment is often viewed as self-actualisation. According to Maslow, self-actualisation is a developmental striving.

Rogers (1980) supported self-actualisation and defined it as “an underlying flow of movement toward constructive fulfillment of inherent possibilities”. Rogers believed that humans have a striving to enhance the experience of the self. He proposed that physiological and safety need satisfaction maintains the individual, while connectedness and curiosity satisfaction enhance the individual. Self-actualisation needs provide energy and direction to become what one is capable of becoming. The two fundamental characteristics of self-actualisation as a developmental process are autonomy and openness to experience. Autonomy means to depend on one’s self and to regulate one’s own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Openness is to experience refers to the act of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours as neither repressed, ignored, or filtered, nor distorted by wishes, fears, or past experiences.

The two-level hierarchy


Unlike Maslow's suggestion, needs do not need to be satisfied in order from bottom to top as growth is not linear. There is empirical evidence for a two-level hierarchy of deficiency needs and growth needs (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976; Sheldon et al., 2001). The two level hierarchy condenses the physiological, safety, belongingness, and esteem needs into the single category of deficiency needs. The self-actualisation need becomes the growth needs. The two-level hierarchy abolishes the notion that needs are to be satisfied in order from bottom to top. It also provides a clear distinction of what is needed to move on to growth needs (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976; Sheldon et al., 2001; see Figure 1).

Alderfer's ERG model


Alderfer's (1969) ERG model is another interpretation of Maslow's Hierarchy. As shown in figure 2, it is a three part loop consisting of existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs. There are three processes of moving through the loop; progression, regression, and strengthening. Similarly to the two level hierarchy above (figure 1), this model abolishes the notion that needs are to be satisfied in order. Additionally, Alderfer's model addresses processes of growth which other models fail to do. This model highlights the question; how do we promote the process of progression and satisfaction?

Maslow's self-actualisation behaviours
According to Maslow, there are six main behaviours to help achieve self-actualisation.

Make growth choices

Life is a series of choices either towards growth or towards fear. The growth choice is a movement toward self-actualisation, whereas the fear choice is a movement away from self-actualisation.

Be honest

Take responsibility for your choices and the consequences of those choices.

Position yourself for peak experiences

Set up conditions to increase the likelihood of peak experiences and work on challenging false beliefs.

Give up defensiveness

Identify defences and find the courage to give them up.

Let the self emerge

Listen to that inner voice and block out the noises of the world. Instead of looking to others for guidance, take note of your own personal interests and aspirations, who do you want to be?

Be open to experience

Practice mindfulness and experience life vividly, selflessly, and with full concentration and total absorption.

The make growth choices behaviour aligns with more modern research of growth mindset theory (Dweck, 2007). Let the self emerge and be open to experience align with the fundamental characteristics of spirituality that enhance potential fulfillment (Ivtzen et al, 2013).

Upon self-reflection, Hannah decides that the self-actualising behaviour she needs to work on is to let the self emerge. She decides she is going to listen to her inner voice, think about who she wants to be, and pursue her personal interests and aspirations.
 * Case study

Roger's organismic valuing process
The organismic valuing process is an inherent capability to judge for oneself whether a specific experience promotes or hinders growth (Rogers, 1964). It is also the ability to judge what is important and essential for a more fulfilling life. All experiences of actualising one’s potential are evaluated by the organismic valuing process. It allows the individual to coordinate life experiences in accordance with the actualisation tendency (Sheldon et al, 2003).

Creating a safe environment
The basic psychological conditions of unconditional care, authenticity, and acceptance must be present in order to override any defensive responses (Maurer & Daukantaite, 2020). One must have a psychologically safe social environment and limited conditions of worth. In an atmosphere of genuineness and acceptance, individuals can more vulnerably engage with the process of growth (Rogers, 1967). Therapy by a clinical psychologist is effective in treating underlying conditions and trauma as well as creating a psychologically safe environment for an individual to flourish (Maurer & Daukantaite, 2020).

Self-reflection
Exercises encouraging self-reflection on one’s values help one to gain a greater connection with the self and a better understanding of one’s sources of intrinsic motivation (Maurer & Daukantaite, 2020). Promoting self-connection may help individuals understand the self and set more self-congruent goals, thereby enhancing the growth process (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Journaling is an effective self-reflection exercise.

Hannah has started going to therapy to address some underlying mental health conditions. She has also started journaling to reflect on her values and create goals.
 * Case study

Goal setting
Goal setting has been found to be effective in fulfilling potential. Writing about life goals significantly reduces self-criticism and promotes confidence in attaining life goals (Troop et al, 2013).

Goals must be difficult, specific, and self-congruent (Koestner et al, 2002). Difficult goals energise behaviour through increasing effort and persistence (Earley et al, 1987). Specific goals direct that energy toward a particular course of action as they tell the performer where to concentrate and precisely what to do (Klein et al, 1990). Concordant goals both energise and direct behaviour as they allow performers to use inner motivational resources (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Feedback is important for goals as it allows people to keep track of their progress and identify what needs work (Bandura & Cervone, 1983).

Eight steps for effective goal setting (Reeve, 2018, p193):
 * 1) Identify the objective to be accomplished.
 * 2) Define goal difficulty.
 * 3) Clarify goal specificity.
 * 4) Ask why you are pursuing this goal or how self-goal concordant the goal is.
 * 5) Specify how and when performance will be measured.
 * 6) Identify goal-attainment strategies.
 * 7) Create “if-then” implementation intentions.
 * 8) Make performance feedback available.


 * Case study

Hannah's goal is to obtain a Bachelor's degree in psychology and then complete Honours. She needs to maintain her distinction average in order to do Honours. She has decided she will work two shifts a week instead of three so she will have time to study. Hannah's goal is very self-coordinate as she holds an intrinsic value for psychology and is motivated to obtain a career she is passionate about. Performance will be measured through each assignment grade. She will read assignment feedback in depth. If she gets a mark below a distinction, she will closely assess where she went wrong to ensure she does better next assignment.

Hannah was previously working three shifts a week in order to buy material items. She identified that this is a superficial want with little intrinsic value or long-term gratification.

Growth mindset
One of Maslow’s behaviours to help promote self-actualisation is to make growth choices. This draws similarities with Growth Mindset Theory (Dweck, 1999). Mindsets are mental frameworks used to process information, guide attention and make decisions. Mindsets greatly influence perceptions about one’s ability to be better. Growth mindset refers to believing that personal qualities are things you can cultivate and improve through effort. Whereas, a fixed mindset believes that qualities are permanent traits that are unchangeable.

Intelligence and personality
Those with a fixed mindset perceive their intelligence as unchangeable, while those with a growth mindset perceive their intelligence as malleable. Perceived inability to improve intelligence ultimately leads to struggle when facing challenges (Wood, 2000). Mindsets affect the way people view feedback and effort when developing a skill. When attempting a task, those with a fixed mindset are more likely to view trying hard as a sign of incompetence. In contrast, those with a growth mindset view effort as a tool which can be used to achieve a desired outcome (Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck, 2007). Similarly, individuals with a growth mindset of personality believe that personality can be improved while those with a fixed mindset perceive personality as unchangeable (Wood, 2000). Growth mindset has also been found to positively influence social interaction and self-esteem (Li, Zhao & Yu, 2019; Renaud & McConnell, 2007).

A 2020 study of 46 students aged 12 to 15 years investigated the growth mindset of personality and intelligence in relation to academic performance. Participants with a growth mindset in either personality or intelligence had a significant academic advantage on classroom grades and on standardised testing, particularly in reading and language. Additionally, the growth mindset of intelligence predicted significant change in standardised math scores (Fox & Barrera, 2020).

How to develop a growth mindset?
When you push yourself out of your comfort zone to learn something difficult, the neurons in your brain form new, stronger connections (Blackwell et al, 2007). According to Blackwell et al, just knowing this information is enough to significantly improve effort and performance.

Mastery goals
Mastery goals and beliefs are effective in promoting the development of a growth mindset. Mastery beliefs reflect the extent of perceived control one has over achieving desirable outcomes and preventing undesirable ones (Peterson et al, 1993). Mastery-oriented individuals do not see failure as an indictment of the self. Instead they view setbacks as motivation to try harder or as constructive feedback (Clifford, 1984). Mastery socialisation changes the way people view effort. When effort is viewed positively it improves performance and self-efficacy (Dweck, 2008). When an individual masters a new skill they are likely to view effort as a useful tool which aids the development of a growth mindset.

Implementation of mastery goals
Mastery modelling programs help build a person’s self-efficacy. In a mastery modelling program, an expert in a skill area works with a group of learners to show them how to cope with a daunting situation (Reeve, 2018). On an individual level, one could set out to master a new skill with the intention to change cognitions around how they view effort, mistakes and failure.

In a learning environment, mastery goals can be promoted by placing greater value on improvement and progress rather than the outcome. Additionally, mistakes should be viewed as an important part of learning, and effort should be seen as a tool for development (Meece & Miller, 1999).

Hannah has taken up competitive bodybuilding as a mastery goal in order to develop a growth mindset. Previously she thought competitive bodybuilding would be too hard for her, however after reading about growth mindsets, she is up for the challenge.
 * Case study

Spirituality
Research shows that spirituality has a positive correlation with psychological well-being and personal growth initiative; which are two central characteristics of fulfilling potential. In a peer-reviewed study, 205 participants were assigned to one of four groups regarding level of spirituality and religion. Multiple comparisons were made between the groups on three measures of psychological well-being: levels of self-actualisation, meaning in life, and personal growth initiative. The results confirm the importance of spirituality on psychological well-being and self-actualisation (Ivtzen et al, 2013). Piedmont (2001) also found a positive correlation between self-actualisation and spirituality. As illustrated in the mentioned studies, autonomy and openness to experience are fundamental characteristics of both spirituality and self-actualisation.

Journaling
Journaling is a spiritual practice that involves writing about the self, thoughts, emotions and experiences. It can be used to identify and plan goals, enforce beliefs or self-affirmations, as well as supplement therapy. A peer-reviewed study found that journaling decreases mental distress and increases well-being (Smyth et al., 2018). It was also associated with less depressive and anxiety symptoms after one month and greater resilience after the first and second month.

Journaling improves the relationship with the self and helps identify intrinsic values (Maurer & Daukantaite, 2020). It also helps develop more structured, adaptive, and integrated schemes about the self, others, and the world (Baikie & Wilhelm, 2005).

Gratitude journaling is the act of writing down what you are grateful. Gratitude journaling aids personal development as it has been found to cultivate positive emotions by focusing on abundance, resources and strengths. Evidence also suggests that it can increase life satisfaction and positive affect (Işık & Ergüner-Tekinalp, 2017).

Hannah's friends have invited her on many overseas holidays, however she always declines due to fear. After learning about the importance of being open to experience, she decides to go on the next trip overseas with her friends.
 * Case study

Hannah continues journaling to help gain a better understanding of herself as well as practice gratitude. She decides to investigate other spiritual practices she can partake in.

Implementation
The goal of personal fulfillment is to promote life outcomes that have intrinsic value (Reeve, 2018, p423-426). This is done by creating a step-by-step plan to overcome what is hindering growth and to promote what will help growth. This includes changing the environment, interpersonal relationships, and solving motivational and emotional problems.

Hannah decided to terminate an unhealthy relationship that has been negatively affecting her mental health. She identifies limiting beliefs and unhelpful defence mechanisms through therapy. She creates a plan to reflect on her personal strengths in order to build her self-efficacy.
 * Case study

Quiz
{A growth mindset means that you view your characteristics as changeable through effort.} + True - False

{What are the two fundamental characteristics of both self-actualisation and spirituality?} + Autonomy and openness to experience - Be honest and position yourself for peak experiences

{If I am having trouble identifying what is important to me I should...?} - Ask my therapist + Journal and self-reflect

{Should I...?} - Look up to others and take note + Identify my personal values

{Life goals should be...?} + Specific, difficult, self-congruent - Flexible, easy, approved by others

{If I fail at something I should...?} + Identify where I can improve and try again - Try something else

Conclusion
One's physical and psychological environment must be safe and healthy in order to promote the organismic valuing process, this can be done through self-direction and/or therapy with a counsellor, life coach, or psychologist. A growth mindset should be developed by changing cognitions about effort and failure through the implementation of mastery goals. Adoption of self-actualising or spiritual behaviours is crucial to ensure one is doing what is necessary for growth. Goals need to be specific, difficult, and self-congruent. Promotion of strengths and repairing weaknesses is essential to overcome what hinders growth and to accelerate what is already working.


 * Take home messages
 * Create a safe psychological environment
 * Adopt self-actualising or spiritual behaviours
 * Adopt a growth mindset through mastery goals
 * Identify what is important to you through self-reflection
 * Set specific, difficult, and self-congruent goals
 * Promote strengths and overcome weaknesses