Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Meaning in life

Overview
What is meaning in life (MIL)? This is an age-old question. Socrates (470-399BCE) was one of the first philosophers to question an individual's unique drive and search for meaning in their own lives. However, Frankls (1946) theory on meaning and logotherapy heavily influenced the search for this answer. Meaning can derive from one's sense of importance, purpose, direction, goals, value, cohesion, and coherence in their own life experiences. Although, finding MIL is typically useful and promotes psychological well-being and life-satisfaction, it may not always produce a positive effect, and may have serious negative consequences.

This chapter explains how MIL is individually crafted, conceptualised, and experienced.

Focus questions:
 * How can meaning in life be defined?
 * What contributors are there?
 * What are the consequences?
 * Is meaning in life universal?

What is MIL?
The search for MIL has been suggested as an innate drive, that all humans possess (Harlow, 1993, as cited in Steger, 2012). Meaning has been considered crucial to the ability to thrive and grow, and is associated with authentic, cohesive and happy living. It is suggested that meaning can help nurture conditions to foster happiness (Steger, 2012), decrease psychological distress, and maximise one's potential, thus increasing an individual's overall life satisfaction.

Case study
Bob the counsellor (figure 1)

Bob is a counsellor who travels for work. Bob values his work, as he is able to help others and feels a sense of purpose and importance in what he does. Bob also values spending weekends with his family when he is not travelling for work, and visiting his elderly parents twice a week. Bob's job is has recently given him a promotion that he is looking forward to.

Case study: finding meaning
"Bob finds meaning in his family life, and within his work. Bob has a feeling of purpose and direction, in the form of a job promotion, which creates cohesion, coherence and a sense of importance. He holds meaning within the relationship with his parents, and his family, implying the significant value, importance and purpose these relationships have for providing meaning in Bobs life. Because Bob identifies meaning in multiple aspects of his life, he has a relatively strong feeling of MIL. The current situation a positive consequence of Bobs identified MIL."

How can you define MIL?
MIL has many inter-related definitions; however they still have some distinctions from one another.

Definitions of MIL can span from sense of purposefulness and coherence (Park & George, 2013), the attainment of meaningfulness by completing personal goals or life narrative (Kenyon, 2000, as cited in Steger & Frazier, 2006). However, the most applicable to this chapter is an individual's capability to act according to their own morals, values and beliefs, whilst maintaining direction for individual goals and the future (Steger & Frazier, 2006).

MIL has three main concepts that can be agreed upon by most theorists, including purpose, cohesion and coherence, and importance. These interact with each other to produce meaning within relationships, friendships, occupations, and other life events.

Purpose and direction
Purpose refers to an individual's perceived direction within their own life, including current and future goals (Park & George, 2013; Frankls, 1946 as cited in Steger, 2012). An individual may have more than one purpose in their life. Whilst direction, refers to where an individual thinks their life will go (Steger, 2012), whether that be a owning a dream home, or becoming a pro-basketball player. Purpose and direction interact to produce motivation to keep moving towards goals, and to become more resilient to negative situations (Newman, Nezleck & Thrash, 2018).

A study (Dezutter, et al., 2013) investigated the MIL of chronically ill patients, and reported patients who identified meaning, or were actively searching for meaning, had better overall psychological well-being, in comparison to patients who identified limited, or no meaning. Patients who had MIL, saw a sense of purpose and direction in their lives, even though they were chronically ill. This provides insight about how searching for meaning can help improve the psychological well-being, no matter the circumstance, build resilience against adverse life events, and act as a protective factor.

Coherence and cohesion


Coherence and cohesion can assist making sense of personal experience and promote a sense of meaning. Coherence can help an individual make sense of their experiences in the world (Steger, 2012), and is considered the cognitive component of meaning (Martela & Steger, 2016). Cohesion typically refers to a feeling of unity or "oneness" (see Figure 2), which can be explained as an individual's sense of belonging.

An individual may feel a sense of coherence and cohesion through occupations, friendship groups and intimate relationships (Newman, Nezleck & Thrash, 2013). The more coherent and cohesive an experience is, the less risk of encountering psychological distress and conflict between personal values (Martela & Steger, 2016). By increasing coherence and cohesion, one is able to better protect from harm, and contribute to the development of meaning.

Sense of importance
The Ancient Greeks philosophised about the idea of eudaimonia, which seeks happiness, personal growth, success and responsibility for the present and future (Steger, 2012). This concept is closely related to Frankls (1946 as cited in Steger, 20120) work of meaning and logotherapy, where an individual's sense of importance, focuses on personal values, self-worth, expectations and standards.

Through adverse life events, it is essential for individual's to feel valued, important and worthy, to help protect and strengthen psychological well-being. This sense of importance, increases self-awareness and promotes healthy relationships (Frankl, 1946 as cited in Steger, 2012). An individual may find a sense of importance through values such as family, or work, and when expectations and standards are met, it can increase self-worth. Without a sense of importance, individual's may experience conflict with personal values, resulting in psychological distress, or discomfort and low self-worth.

What contributes to MIL?
Contributors to MIL, vary from one individual to another, but some (Krok., 2015; Lin & Chan, 2021; Martela & Steger, 2016) suggest three main factors: religion and culture, social factors, and self-awareness. These typically work together to help develop and strengthen individually crafted meanings, and act as a buffer to distressing situations.



Social contributors
Social aspects that contribute to a sense of MIL can include religious and cultural views and support, the number and significance of inter-personal relationships, and perceived sense of belonging (Martela & Steger, 2016), connections and support.

Studies (Krock, 2015; Lin & Chan, 2021; Pan, et al., 2010) measuring MIL in international students, found that counselling sessions that target goals and seek meaning within relationships within others and host societies, were effective at protecting against feelings of loneliness, stress and isolation, and increase life satisfaction (Itzick, Kagan & Ben-Ezra, 2018; Pan, et al., 2010).

Other studies (Pan, et al., 2010; Steen, Berghuis & Braam, 2019), suggest that common identities that arise from similarities or goals, can also contribute to a sense of meaning, as individual's feel a strong group identity, purpose, and a sense of belongingness. For example, rally's or protests typically consist of people from different walks of life, coming together for a common goal or purpose (see figure 3).

The self & self-actualisation


Meaning in one's life is interpreted, and uniquely created by every individual, by their own personal values, morals and beliefs. Psychologists who take a counselling stance, actively use techniques such as outlining personal goals, morals and values, to raise self-awareness, self-esteem and outlook on life (Steger, et al., 2008).

Some individual's even look to reach self-actualisation (see figure 4), defined as an individual's 'highest level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily and ego needs have been fulfilled' (Maslow, 1943, as cited in, Book chapter, 2020). Evidence suggests that individuals who use self-help tools, can better strive towards self-actualisation, and are more likely to interpret their lives as meaningful, and find more meaning within the 'little' things in life (Itzick, Kagan & Ben-Ezra., 2018). This suggests that self-improvement, by utilising tools such as meditation, therapy or journaling can help individual's find and understand their own meaning, which can in turn improve well-being, quality of life and increase life satisfaction.

Furthermore, studies (Itzick, Kagan & Ben-Ezra., 2018; Steen, Berghuis & Braam, 2019; Steger, 2012) found that people rated basic and psychological needs such as belongingness, autonomy and purpose as more important to fulfilling life satisfaction, than money. Thus, implying individual's must first satisfy their basic and psychological needs to feel accomplished, and rely on these factors over material items and wealth. Increasing self-awareness, and self-help may help an individual find meaning, and work toward self-actualisation.

Religion and cultural contributors


Religion and culture are often described as factors that can influence one's sense of MIL, either positively, or negatively (Krok, 2015; Martela & Steger., 2016; Steger, et al., 2008; Pan, et al., 2010). Meaning is individually experienced and perceived, so therefore it cannot be universal.

Studies (Krok, 2015; Lin & Chan, 2021; Steger, et al., 2008) suggest that psychological coping and well-being, and religion, go hand-in-hand in developing meaning. Once meaning is established, it can act as a buffer against negative life events, and create an internal structure, strengthening the concept of the self. Supported by numerous studies (Steger, et al., 2008, 2021), one's perception of MIL, is increased when they attribute meaning to multiple factors, which can lead to heightened life satisfaction and happiness.

For example, if an individual feels a sense of belongingness, happiness, safety and purpose when attending church, this can develop into a meaning in their lives, as they become to value and hold religion as part of their identity (see figure 5).

Additionally, Steger, et al. (2008) found that MIL is perhaps defined and perceived differently across cultures, such that American participants tended to search for meaning after a more negative life event, whilst Japanese participants searched following a positive life event. This implies that culture may have an influence on the way meaning is interpreted and understood by the individual.

Overall, religious and cultural factors can contribute (Pan, et al., 2010) to a sense of MIL, by providing belongingness, happiness, life satisfaction and protect against negative life events, and additionally, can even construe how it is searched and interpreted cross-culturally.

What are consequences of searching for MIL?
Some psychologists (e,g Maslow, 1943; Rogers, 1946) and researchers (Battista & Almond, 1973; Baumeister, 1991, as cited in Steger & Frazier, 2006) suggest that searching for MIL often occurs subsequent to a negative, unexpected or traumatic event in one's personal life (Newman, Nezlek & Thrash, 2018). However, lack of present meaning or not, individuals can seek meaning through many avenues, and develop multiple meanings, to create a strong, protective barrier (Steger, 2012).

Negative consequences


Search for meaning or identifying meaning is not always positive, and can seriously hinder and individual's psychological well-being when they struggle to identify, or lose meaning (Newman, Nezlek & Thrash, 2018; Steger & Frazier, 2006; Steger, 2012). The loss or struggle to identify meaning may be a result of lack of awareness of the self, or others, or a catastrophic life event (e.g. illness or death of loved one).

Although there are strategies and tools to help searching for MIL, sometimes a negative life event (see figure 6), such the death of a loved one, can be detrimental to MIL, especially if the individual held significant meaning within the relationship. Consequences of losing or having a lack of MIL, can include suicide ideation, increased and worsened anxiety and depression and suicidal attempt (Harlow, 1986; Debates, 1993, as cited in Steger & Frazier, 2006). Steger & Frazier (2006), reported that individuals who found their lives meaningless, also lacked a sense of belonging, importance, and purpose, which heightens the risk of developing or magnifying mental disorders, and more over increased the need for intervention and therapy. Itzick, Kagan and Ben-Ezra (2018), also report lack of meaning can decrease job satisfaction and engagement, increase fatigue, loneliness and burnout, reduce quality of life, and impact the ability to provide adequate services in a workplace.

Another factor that can negatively influence searching for meaning, is acculturative stress, which typically occurs when an individual is in an unfamiliar country, where they may not speak the native language, or understand the culture, which can cause frustration, loneliness, and meaninglessness (Itzick, Kagan & Ben-Ezra, 2018). This is often experienced by international students, who are studying in a foreign country, and may have increased troubles finding secure, meaningful relationships in their host country.

Positive consequences


For example, meaning-based therapy may assist finding meaning and creating links, which can increase self-confidence, self-esteem, and happiness, which can influence awareness of the self and others (Steger & Frazier, 2006). Although therapy proves to be beneficial to self-improvement and finding meaning, individual's may also find their own meaning through pleasurable activities (e.g. sports, watching movies, exercise), or through establishing friendships (see figure 7) and intimate relationships (Park & George, 2013).

Other studies (Dezutter, et al., 2013; Newman, Nezlek & Thrash, 2018; Russo-Netzer, Sinai & Zeevi, 2020) suggest that individual's who feel a sense of meaning, may have increased levels of enjoyment at their place of employment, happiness and satisfaction within. Additionally, meaning can act as a partial mediator when faced with adverse stressors, such as subjection to violence, loneliness, fatigue, burnout (Russo-Netzer, Sanai & Zeevi, 2020), and even acculturative stressors (Pan, et al., 2010).

Combatting consequences
The search of MIL can be assisted through multiple measures, such as through therapy, seeking out new hobbies, friendships, or discarding negatively impacting factors, such as a bad job, or a bad friendship. Searching for additional meanings in one's life, is strongly associated with increased life satisfaction, and overall happiness (Pan, et al., 2010; Steen, Berghuis & Braam, 2019).

One method to help develop and find meaning can be done through therapy, by utilising techniques that actively search for meaning, such as outlining personal goals step by step, self-reflection, self-discovery, and trying to see other perspectives (Russo-Netzer, Sanai & Zeevi, 2020). These techniques look to increase self-awareness, teaching the individual how to search for their own meaning. Alternatively through activities, meeting new friends, or even terminating relationships (Steger, 2012) that are negatively impacting an individual's worth, can assist MIL. Some individual's may need extra help to develop techniques to help combat negative events, and help them seek meaning within their lives, whilst some may find it in their own ways.

Case study
Using the same study mentioned above, we will explore the consequences, both negative and positive of MIL.

Case study - Bob the counsellor

Due to the promotion, Bob had to travel to a foreign country for five weeks. Bob has an increased feeling of coherence and cohesion, importance, purpose and direction from his new position.

After a few months, Bob notices that the promotion is not what he had hoped, and his boss has given him significantly increased workload, leading to long days, and three weeks longer stay than planned. Bob is experiencing burnout and fatigue and has not seen his family, or his parents in two months. To add to Bobs distress, he is having a hard time communicating with locals for directions to hotels and restaurants.

Case study: an in-depth look
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Bob is experiencing conflicts in his values, that is his family and his work. Although he valued his job and promotion to begin with, and felt a sense of purpose, direction, coherence and cohesion, it quickly dwindled when he took on long working days and excess workload. More so, because he has not seen his family, he is likely feeling psychological discomfort as he identifies his family as meaningful to his life.

This conflict has lead Bob to feel burnout and fatigued. He is also experiencing acculturative stress, causing loss of meaning, loneliness and purpose, which can increase his risk for anxiety, depression and other mental disorders.

Case study: possible solution
Bob may be able to relieve his psychological distress he is feeling from being away from his family, by discussing ground rules with his boss. For example, to work for only one month at a time, or have a weekend where he can fly down to see his family. Alternatively, he could ask for more local work, to reduce this conflict with his values even more.

Additionally, to help his burnout and fatigue, Bob should speak to his boss to discuss his concerns, and ask for a demotion to his prior position, or reduced hours and time away from his family. This will help Bob recover from his burnout and fatigue, and help prevent against its reoccurrence.

He may benefit from staying at a hotel that has English speaking workers, or alternatively asking for a local translator and guide. By having a person to help address his concerns whilst in a foreign country, it may elevate his acculturative stress.

End of chapter quiz
To test what you have learned this chapter, take this quick quiz! {Contributors to ones meaning in life are universal} - True + False

{Meaning in life is individually crafted, to suit an individuals beliefs, values and perceived meaning and purpose in life} + True - False

{Ones sense of meaning is only a cognitive process} - True + False

{Counselling psychologists use techniques such as; outlining goals and values, self-discovery, and changing outlook on life, to assist individuals to find their own meaning in life} + True - False

{A protest is a way that individuals can utilise social factors to add meaning to their lives} + True - False

Conclusion
Overall, MIL varies across culture and is individually crafted, to fit personal beliefs and values, and can act as a protective barrier against negative life events. All humans go through a process that is suggested to be innate, to help explain, understand and give meaning to their lives. It can typically be described as the feeling of importance, sense of belonging, coherence, cohesion, direction and purpose. Purpose and direction explain the motivation an individual has towards a current or future goal, while coherence and cohesion can help elevate psychological distress, and promote the search for meaning. Furthermore, a sense of importance, ensures that an individual views their lives as significant, valued and worth living. These are often influenced by contributors such as social, religious, cultural and aspects of the self, to help develop meaning. Social contributors can be explained by inter-personal relationships, connections and support to other identifying groups, which is similar to religion and cultural factors, that focus on a central shared identity and beliefs, however is important to note that interpretation of meaning varies cross-culturally. Additionally, the self focuses on how self-work can improve awareness of both the self, and others, increase belongingness, happiness and move towards self-actualisation.

Contributors such as social, the self and self actualisation, and cultural and religious factors can both hinder or help an individual's perception of meaning. Negative factors, according to research, suggest it is typical for individuals to lack meaning after a negative life event, such as the death of a family member, and can have adverse effects on psychological health, increasing the need for intervention or therapy to help combat and prevent isolation, suicidal attempt, or suicide ideation. However, positive effects of MIL, can include increased psychological health, happiness, feelings of purpose, self-worth and foster self-growth in the form of self actualisation, better job performance and buffers against stressors. Individual's who struggle to find meaning, may benefit from meaning-based therapy, engagement in activities, and in new friendships.

Overall, this chapter described and outlined the MIL across culture, settings and how it is influence by both internal and external factors. It is important to note that MIL is individually defined, and proves to be a significant predictor in psychological well-being and life satisfaction.