Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation

Overview


Self-regulation is the regulation of emotions, behaviour, reactions of self and to the environment around an individual. It is an important thing to develop because it can be used in every aspect of life. It helps to motivate desires and keep behaviours align with social norms and expectations. Self-regulation includes aspects that are used and developed such as planning, applying, evaluating and monitoring one's behaviours and cognitions before, during and after tasks.

There are many types of self-regulation, the types that will be discussed are emotional self-regulation, behavioural self-regulation, and learned self-regulation.

Why does self-regulation matter? Self-regulation is important because it helps with individual development, psychological wellbeing, and to help apply learned behaviour.

How can self-regulation be developed and how can psychological science help? To answer this question three theories will be discussed in relation to each focused self-regulation. The theories include Baumeister's self-regulation theory, Bandura's social cognitive theory, and social learning theory.

Focus questions:
 * What is self-regulation
 * Why does self-regulation matter?
 * How can it be developed?

What is self-regulation?
Self is referred to as an individual's own reflection of their consciousness. A sense of one's self. Regulation is referred to as management of systems formed by rules. Self-regulation, or  Emotional self-regulation is defined as an individual's ability to manage and understand their own behaviours, feelings, and reactions occurring in their environment. This includes the ability to regulation one's reactions and behaviours to their own emotions. In other words, it is a characteristic each person has that links them to the context of their environment that helps shape the individual's own personal development. "self-regulation refers to the exercise of control over oneself, especially with regard to bringing the self into line with preferred (thus, regular) standards." (Vohs & Baumeister, 2004, P. 2).

While there are many types of self-regulation, they usually fall under the categories of personal, behavioral, and environmental. A couple types of self-regulation that will be focused on are:

Emotional self-regulation
Emotional self-regulation focuses on the emotion aspect of self-regulation. It is the ability for an individual to emotionally react to their experiences in a socially acceptable way. It involves regulating an individual's own emotions. Emotional self-regulation can be explained as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation s responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying an individual's reactions emotionally.

In the next section, when discussing why self-regulation is important, emotional self-regulation will connect to psychological well-being, and later discussed through the self-regulation theory.

Behavioural self-regulation
Behavioural self-regulation is the behaviour aspect of self-regulation. It is used to manage our attention, energy, emotions and behaviours in socially acceptable ways, for socially acceptable behavioural outcomes (Lowry, 2016).

Behavioural self-regulation will link to individual development, and then the social cognitive theory.

Learned self-regulation
Self-regulated learning is an individual's ability to recognize, understand, and control their learning environment (Self-regulated learning refers, P. 1, 2012). Learned self-regulation is linked to learned behaviour which is why it is an important type of self-regulation to look at. It is regulated through cognition, and Motivation.

When discussing why self-regulation matters, learned self-regulation will link to Applying learned behaviours which will then be discussed through the social learning theory.

Why does self-regulation matter?
Self-regulation can be used as a tool to help an individual align themselves with their ideal self, this occurs through individual development, psychological well-being, and applying learning behaviours. These three things and their outcomes are what make self-regulation important.

Self-regulation can serve as a protector to one's self through applying learned behaviour, individual development, and health and wellbeing, Singh & Sharma (2018) "With the help of self-regulation strategy people can regulating desired feelings, thoughts, and actions can allow them to not only protect themselves against recurring stressors and psychological distress but also achieve desired well-being goals and standards." (P. 443).

Individual development
Individual development or Personal development is when an individual participates in activities that help to develop their abilities and potential. This development creates a higher quality of life and goals and aspirations.

Through self-regulation, self-control can occur. Self-control then helps with self management, this then leads to an individual to view themselves and their life as continuously growing, moving towards goals and looking for new experiences, all of these things continue to support self development.

Research has found that those with good self-control when managing view themselves as constantly growing and moving towards their desired goals, and seek out new experiences in life (Singh & Sharma, 2018, P. 443). Those with good self-regulation are able to do so in ways that are socially acceptable, while individual development is important for oneself it is also important because it plays a role in how you behave around others, so it has an impact on behavioral self-regulation.

Case study 1

Goal pursuit and goal adjustment: Self-regulation and intentional self-development in changing developmental contexts (Brandtstadter, 2009).

This study looks at how people try to control their individual development throughout their life. The things involved in personal development are skills such as strong goal orientated, ability to adjust goals, and openness to change to achieve goals (Brandtstadter, 2009). These skills that need to be used are skills that are required in self-regulation.

It was found that psychological well-being has an effect on how goal attainment will occur and the outcomes (Brandtstadter, 2009). This shows that it is important to have positive psychological wellbeing for self-regulation. The next section will discuss how psychological well-being is important in self-regulation.

Take home messages

The take home messages of this study were that self-regulation is involved in individual development through skills such as goal orientation, ability to be flexible with goals, and open to change when it comes to these goals. Another message is that psychological wellbeing has an impact on how self-regulation will occur.

Psychological wellbeing
Psychological wellbeing is a positive mental state consisting of positive emotions such as happiness and satisfaction (Cooper, 2021). The Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being theory consists of six factors that influence psychological wellbeing. They include:

Research into self-regulation and psychological wellbeing found that there is a positive correlation between self-regulation and psychological wellbeing; this includes its factors such as life purpose, personal growth, and self-acceptance, (Singh & Sharma, 2018, P. 443). For example, those who have good self-regulation are able to develop new behaviours and attitudes to become more focused on their goals (Singh & Sharma, 2018, P. 443); this relates to the factors of personal growth and life purpose.
 * 1) Autonomy - an individual independently regulates themselves and their behaviours without society pressures.
 * 2) Environmental Mastery - individual effectively uses mastery and opportunities when managing environmental activities and factors that contribute to creating beneficial situations.
 * 3) Personal Growth - open to new experiences, open to development, and acknowledges self and behavioural improvements over time.
 * 4) Positive Relations with Others - individuals engaging in meaningful relationship with other people.
 * 5) Life Purpose - individuals that are goal orientated and believe that life has meaning.
 * 6) Self-Acceptance - individual has positive beliefs and attitudes about themselves.

Development of self-regulation skills could be effective in managing stressors, positive psychological well-being, and preventing poor mental wellbeing (Singh & Sharma, 2018, P. 443). This is because self-regulation involved suppressing one's negative emotions which then allows for people to reframe their negative thoughts and focus on positive outcomes (Singh & Sharma, 2018, P. 443). This is emotional regulation, one being able to regulate their emotions in a way that is beneficial to the individual.

Research found that when people are more goal orientated through external rewards and controls instead of internal drives they have negative consequences, this includes poorer psychological well-being; this includes when an individual places importance on extrinsic drives rather than intrinsic drives, poorer wellbeing will be exhibited (Ryan & Deci, 2000, P. 48). In other words, self-regulation is best when it is an internal motivation, this then leads to better psychological wellbeing in comparison to external motivations which lead to negative wellbeing.

Case study 2 When rewards compete with nature: The undermining of intrinsic motivation and self-regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2002).

The purpose of this study was to look at the underlying affects by intrinsic and extrinsic motivations on self-regulation.

Research found that extrinsic rewards lead to negative affects in learning, assimilation, creative social behaviour, and values and meanings (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

There was two studies done that found that when individuals are more driven by extrinsic motivations rather than intrinsic, they had negative affects such as poor psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2020). It was also found that self-regulation occurs better when an individual is given the chance to be driven by autonomy (intrinsic) support rather than control (extrinsic) (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Autonomy is an aspect of intrinsic motivation, and control is an aspect of extrinsic motivation. This supports the idea that intrinsic motivations are better for using and developing self-regulation.

See book chapters intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation for a deeper understanding of the motivations.

Take home messages

The take home messages of this case study is that when an individual is driven by intrinsic motivations it leads to better outcomes. Being able to use internal forces to motivate onself and achieve goals leads to greater psychological wellbeing.

Applying learned behaviours


Applied learning refers to educational approaches where students learn through engaging directly in the application of skills, models, and theories. It is when students apply what is learnt in theory and use it in practical, hands on real like experience (Suny, 2021).

Bradley et al. (2017) found that students that feel strongly connected to school and have strong self-efficacy for online classes were more likely to effectively use learning strategies such as self-regulation to finish their school work in comparison to student with no connection to school and little to no self-efficacy beliefs. This is an example of learned self-regulation. This is an example of how self-regulation can be used in applying learned behaviour. It talks about how self-efficacy leads to the use of self-regulation, this is important because self-efficacy is a part of self-regulation as well Bandura's social-cognitive theory. This links self-regulation to the social-cognitive theory.

Case study 3 Self-Regulation Empowerment Program: A School-Based Program to Enhance Self-Regulation and Self-Motivated Cycles of Student Learning (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004).

This article was about a training program called Self-regulation empowerment program (SREP). It was designed to help measure and develop motivation and self-regulation cycles of learning in students in middle and high school.

The program combines self-regulation dynamic feedback model and important factors of the problem solving model. It was done by assessing student's study strategies and self-regulation beliefs (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004, P. 537). The social-cognitive theory and features of the problem-solving model helped to structure the program (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004, P. 537).

While this study has shown positive outcomes on the achievements and motivations of the students, there are some limitations. One is that the processes involved in this program may not be the only aspects that contribute to positive academic outcomes, for example, student attendance, and peer relations could be contributing factors. Other limitations could be motivational, cognitive, and cultural differences in students. For example, those with low intelligence would struggle with the skills needed in self-regulation (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004).

This study is important to look at because it answers the focus questions of why does it matter and how can it be developed. Case-study results supports the idea that the program could have positive outcomes on motivation and achievement (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004, P. 549). This study investigates the outcomes of self-regulation and learning, which answers the question of why it is important. The question of how it can be developed was also answered in this case study. It was investigated through the strategies and self-regulation beliefs that were assessed, as well as, combining these strategies and beliefs with the social-cognitive theory.

Take home messages

The take home message of this case study is with the help of the self-regulation dynamic feedback model and important factors of the problem solving model, students are able to develop important skills that help in self-regulation. With stronger self-regulation one is able to meet their academic goals, which contributes to their wellbeing.

Quizzes
{Self-regulation is important because it is used to apply learning to behaviour: + True - False
 * type=""}

{Self-Regulation Empowerment Program (SREP) results showed no positive outcomes?: - True + False
 * type=""}

{'Values' are a component of environmental process?: - True + False
 * type=""}

{Self-efficacy is when behaviour is encouraged by rewards: - True + False
 * type=""}

How can self-regulation be developed?
Self-regulation is about regulating one's reactions, emotions, and behaviours, especially in a social context. Due to this it is important to look at self-regulation through social theories.

To investigate how self-regulation can be developed, three theories in relation to the motivation will be discussed.

Self regulation theory
Self-regulation theory is a personal conscious management system that helps with the process of guiding an individual's feelings, thoughts, and behaviours to reach goals. It involves stages and people contribute their own motivations, development, and behaviours in a system of interacting influences. Social psychologist Roy Baumeister researched self-regulation and found that it has four components:

This theory will help to investigate how psychological wellbeing can be developed through self-regulation.
 * 1) Standards of desirable behaviour
 * 2) Motivations to meet standards
 * 3) Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards
 * 4) Willpower

Self-regulation theory has found that for healthy behavioural patterns one must have active self-regulation (Hall & Fong, 2007). This can be done through the four components above. For example if an individual wants to better manage their social anxiety:


 * Standards of desirable behavior - they could find behaviours that are small but realistically slowly start managing their anxiety. This could be at a shop instead of going to the self checkout, go to a checkout where you'll be served by a person. This way the person will be exposed to people and they will slowly become more comfortable with this which will improve their social anxiety.
 * Motivations to meet standards - this could be a commitment one has to bettering their social anxiety. Maybe a future goal that would require more social interaction is a motivator to developing now. One could also set reminders and make conscious efforts to put themselves in uncomfortable situations, over time they would become comfortable with these situations.
 * Monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards - this could include keeping a journal and tracking their progress, thoughts, and feelings around the development of their social anxiety.
 * Willpower - it is easy to set goals, but it takes willpower to actually do them. Willpower is important to get through all of these standards of behaviours. It is easy to remain in situations that are comfortable which is why willpower is important.

Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory is about how the observation of others leads to an individual's knowledge. social experiences, interactions, and media influences contribute to this Observational learning. This theory is used in communication, education, and psychology. The theory states that when an individual observes a behaviour and its outcomes, they remember it and use this knowledge later to guide their own behaviour. There are two important aspects that contribute to the social cognitive theory:
 * 1) Behavioural - includes the response an individual receives after they have behaviour in a certain way. This gives the individual the opportunity to learn socially acceptable behaviours by other's responses.
 * 2) Environmental - Environmental settings influence a person's ability to successfully reach goals and complete behaviours. For example, developing self-regulation would require the right environment to support the development.

Due to self-regulation being important in applying learning to behaviour, it is important to look at how people learn. This will be investigated through Bandura's social cognitive theory. "In social cognitive theory human behaviour is extensively motivated and regulated by the ongoing exercise of self-influence." (Bandura, 1991, P. 248), this statement supports the idea that an individual can develop self-regulation through personal influence and motivation. It also links back to the Self-Regulation Empowerment Program case study.

There are three main parts of the social cognitive theory, behavioural processes, personal processes, and environmental processes. The factors within these processes are shown in table 1.

Table 1.

Bandura's Social cognitive theory

Research looking at the relationship between Self-efficacy beliefs and computer-related performance showed that a higher performance correlated with higher self-efficacy beliefs, and that a decrease in computer performance related to lower self-efficacy beliefs (Harrison, Rainer et al., 1997, P.84). This research suggest that through self-efficacy, social cognitive theory can help develop self-regulation. The correlation between self-efficacy and performance shows that when the stages of behaviour and personal in the social cognitive theory work together they create a positive outcome.

A study that looked at the environmental influences on physical activity in older Australia found that there were two factors that were strongly correlated with physical activity, they were location opportunities for physical activity and social support from family and friends (Booth, Owen et al., 2000, P. 22). This shows how environmental factors and behavioural factors work together in the social cognitive theory to develop self-regulation. This is because the social support received to help motivate is an environmental process of the social cognitive theory, and the location for physical activity is a behavioral process. These two processes help strengthen the likely hood  and motivation that the individual will participate in physical activity, this then leads to self-regulation over time.

Social cognitive theory linked with self-regulation can provide motivation for behaviour. In the social cognitive theory there are environmental influences which can include social influences. Self-regulation helps an individual to regulate there own behaviours and emotions in a way that aligns with social settings, social norms, and behavioural expectations. When these behaviours that stem from self-regulation occur, the individual is met with rewards (environmental processes) such as social acceptance. These environmental processes reinforce one's personal and behavioural processes, when they are working in alignment together they create and develop self-regulation.

The three main components of social-cognitive theory work together to create self-regulation. For example, a university student will have a goal (personal processes) to do well on an exam, they will then direct effort (behavioural processes) to achieving their goal, once the goal has been achieved that is when environmental processes will occur. In this example the exam results will produce environmental processes such as reward, feedback, and self evaluation.

Social learning theory
Social learning theory focuses on social behaviours and learning processes that state that new behaviours could be learned through observing one's self and other people. The theory states learning as a cognitive process taking place in social aspects and occur during observation or instruction. A process known as vicarious reinforcement can also help influence learning through rewards and punishments of behaviours.

Social learning theory combines cognitive and behavioural theories of learning to made a model that explains learning experiences that occur in the real world. Key points of this theory include:

Research that looked at how modelling and self-regulation played a part in children learning how to swim found that self-modeling intervention is a good technique for promoting self-regulation of learning and it improved swimming skills in children. The self-modelling in this study was a recorded video of the children's current skills and progression (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007). From this the child were able to watch themselves and their skills and improve through self-observation.
 * 1) Learning is not just behaviours, but a cognitive process that occurs in social contexts.
 * 2) Vicarious reinforcement - learning can occur through both observing behaviour and its consequences.
 * 3) Learning can occur with no observable behavioural change. Learning includes observation, knowledge of information from observations, and decision making about behaivour performance.
 * 4) Reinforcement can play a role in learning but it isn't the only responsibility in learning.
 * 5) Environment, behaviour, and cognition all influence each other to lead to learning.

This research has implications for physical educations and teachers involved in teaching motor skills (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007). This research has found that allowing students to self-model and self-observe will help them to develop and apply their learnings. Being able to watch one's self through the self-modelling video enhanced the child's self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and physical performance (Clark & Ste-Marie, 2007). This research found that watch even one's own behavior is enough for one to learn and apply what they have learned to their behaviours.

Conclusion
Self-regulation is the regulation of one's emotions, behaviours, and reactions of self and to the environment around them. While there are many types of self-regulation, this chapter focused on three. These being emotional self-regulation, behavioural self-regulation, and learned self-regulation.

Self-regulation matters because it is an important tool that can be used in all aspects of life, and it helps to motivate the desires that people have. Self-regulation also helps to regulate an individual's emotions and behaviours in a way that is socially acceptable. The three main reasons self-regulation matters were individual development, psychological wellbeing, and applying learned behaviours. Individual development allows people to view their lives as constantly moving forwards towards their goals, which acts as a motivator in self-regulation. Psychological wellbeing is important because self-regulation allows people to be able to manage the stressors and things around them to avoid negative psychological wellbeing. The correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-regulation found that people tend have life purpose, personal growth, and self-acceptance. Applying learned behaviour is important because it allows students to engage in their work as well as develop the skill of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy works closely with self-regulation which means that students then learn later how to self-regulate.

To answer the question of how self-regulation can be developed, three theories were investigated.

The first was Baumeister's self-regulation theory which is a personal conscious management system which helps with guiding a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to reach goals. This theory included four components that helped to attain goals. Each component helps in the development of self-regulation. The next theory discussed was Bandura's social cognitive theory which was about how people learn through observing and modelling behaviours. There are three processes in this theory that work together that help to develop self-regulation through repeated and combined use of these processes. Lastly was the social learning theory, this is that people can learn behaviours through observing themselves and others. The key points of this theory are that learning involved reinforcements and environment.

The take away messages are:

Self-regulation is important for individual development through skills around goals such as setting goals, being flexible, and open to change. Individual develop is important because it allows people to feel like their live is always moving towards their goals

Effectively using self-regulation includes using intrinsic motivations which have greater psychological outcomes. Psychological wellbeing is important in self-regulation because it allows people to regulate themselves in ways that allow for greater psychological wellbeing and when combined people have life purpose, self-acceptance, and personal growth.

Self-regulation is a great tool in applying learned behaviour. It is important because with self-regulation students are able to apply self-efficacy and have greater academic and/or performance outcomes, these outcomes also contribute to greater psychological wellbeing.