Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Time Management

Overview
Have you ever been so engrossed in something that you forgot about the exam revision you needed to revise for your test tomorrow? Or perhaps you had work in the next 30 minutes? Alternatively, you have experienced a lack of time or cannot achieve your days' work due to your limited time. Luckily, this article is here to help you manage your time and inform you about the history and workings of time management.

There has been a growing recognition of the importance of time organisation in literature. Orlikoqsky and Yate (2002), The dimension of work has increasingly become important due to the expanding global need and increases for immediate products and services. Additionally, Garhammer (2002) pointed out that there is an increase in the pace o life. Things were being done faster (accelerating), therefore contracting time expenditure (e.g. sleeping less) and compressing actions (e.g. multi-tasking). Many authors also discuss the need for better incorporation of time in theoretical models and research designs (e.g. Ancona et al, 2001., George and Jones, 200). Other authors have also focused their attention on researching how people in organisations manage their time and ways to make it effective (e.g. Macan, 1994).

Time management is not new, as it has been discussed since the 1950s-1960s. However, time management is somewhat ambiguous; time cannot be managed, but individuals can manage their time. Therefore time management is the strategy that supports and successfully executes behaviours required to achieve a set goal effectively. These strategies may include planning, prioritising important works, allocating time, goal settings, monitoring and self-organisation. By doing so, time management can positively bring about a good perception of control of time, job satisfaction and better health in contrast to reducing stress.

Previous authors propose a method to handle time issues (Drucker,1967., Lakein, 1973). These authors suggest individuals write down on paper the lists of things to do, thus a "To-do" list. However, Drucker (1967) suggests that this method is not always practical as there are failures to complete tasks due to time being precious. In 1959, Mccay and his team developed time-management training programs that are still used today. The program focused on


 * Gaining insight into the consumption of time and activities
 * Changing time expenditures
 * Using daily planning
 * Learning how to prioritise tasks
 * Learning how to handle unexpected tasks and events

Though there is much research on time management, little research has been conducted on how to use and manage time effectively.

Focus questions:
 * How is time managed?
 * Why is time management important?
 * Why is time management difficult?
 * How can we improve time management?

Perhaps you are a detailed person with detailed day-to-day to-do lists, or you are flexible and find regimented schedules suffocating. Managing your time right down to the minute with sticky notes and timetables is as valid as diving into big projects and prioritising other things. Perhaps you have a time of day that works best for you. Some people work better during daylight and others at night. As long as both the work is done, there is nothing wrong is either style. It would be best if you worked with what works best for you and allows you to accomplish all your tasks.

Pickle Jar Theory – The Cost of Small Time Consuming Tasks
The Pickle Jar theory illustrate how unimportant tasks can quickly take up an individual’s time. By filling out days with small trivial tasks, our time becomes limited and prevents us from doing things that matter and requires time. The Prickle Jar theory uses a pickle jar and its content to represent how time is managed. Whatever is contained in the jar represents the different tasks and their commitment. These tasks can be represented by Rocks; are important tasks requiring immediate, significant attention. This task produces huge benefits when achieved.


 * Pebbles; are not such vital tasks but still produce benefits when accomplished.
 * Grains; are small, time-consuming tasks that are easy to do but are of little importance. Grains fill the leftover space from all the other functions. *Grain-like duties can include sending texts and checking emails.
 * Water; is the remaining task that fills the rest of the space.

The main point of the Pickle Jar theory is to be aware of the “rocks” and understand that tasks that require much attention and time are most important. Hard to do in this theory is to determine which tasks are the rock and which are not.

Pareto’s Principle: The 80/20 Rule – Focus on the Tasks with the Greatest Benefit
Pareo's 80/20 rule is similar to the Pickle Jar theory; it suggests that individuals can work smarter and faster by focusing on essential things that provide the most benefits. Activities that create great benefits are 20% of the activities that should consume 80-% of your time. In time management, 20% of the tasks often generate 80% of the results, or 20% of tasks absorb 80% of your availed time. Therefore, we can avoid wasting time by identifying the 20% (i.e. a big project) and spending 80% doing it.

Parkinson’s Law – Reduce the Time Assigned to Each Task
Parkinson's Law suggests that the time required to complete specific tasks will expand to the amount of time it is given. Giving yourself less time to do a certain will lead to the task being done faster. This theory illustrates that less time can lead to better and more effective work. For example, by limiting email checking time, you can actually get other tasks done or by limiting your time to clean the house, you end working faster so you can complete it in that time.

The ABC Model
The ABC model is based on three ideas

1. Awareness - Every moment can be an opportunity if one knows its importance. That is, one should prioritise their time with doing important tasks 2. Belief - Believing in self to do tasks with confidence 3. Continuation - Continuation of using time management tools and techniques will allow for success (Chowdhury, 2013)

Time management models are similar; they require us to prioritise important tasks and activities and worry less about unimportant tasks.

Extrinsic Motivation Vs Intrinsic Motivation
Researched have developed an understandinng on what is it that motivates people to behave or act a certain way. Indivualds are either extrinsically motivated or intrinsically motivated.
 * Why do we do what we do?
 * What drives our behaviour?

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Movation is behaviour that is driven by external rewards; money, grades or fame. Extrinsically motivated individuals will continue to perform tasks that are not rewarding to gain benefits—for instance, working hard and long shifts for money. Extrinsic motivations involve operant conditioning, rewards and punishments for not acting a certain way. S (Situational cue) = R (response) → C (Consequences)

From the diagram above, Rewards and Punishment create different behaviour. If an individual wants a reward, they would act the way they are required, similar to not wanting to be punishmed. As a result both reward and punishment can result in similar behaviour.

Extrinsic motivation is not wrong; by using rewards and punishment, individuals may feel the need to do tasks to avoid penalties or gain a bonus.However, while offering rewards, failure of extrinsic motivation may increase motivation in some cases; it can also lead to excessive rewards, which decreases motivation.

Overjustification is the result of excessive reward and decreased motivation. This occurs because extrinsic motivation is infers intrinsic motivation.

Case Study A classic experiment by Lepper, Greene and Nisbett found that children who were given a reward on a task, later showed less interest in tasks. The researches conducted their experimentat a nursery school. They observed the childrem's intrinsic iinterest in various activities. The researchers then divided the children into 3 conditions;
 * 1. The expected award condition; children were promised to recieve a "Good Player" ribbon for their participation in the activitires of drawing with a felt-tipped pen.
 * 2. Unexpected award condition; children were not told about any given reward but would get one when they finished their activities.
 * 3. No-reward condition; children were not told about any given reqard and did not get one for completing their activities.

Note that children have already been doing this activity since before and had intrinsic interest.

Later on children participating in the same activity, this time, without any promise of a reward.

Results Children who were promised to get a reward during the first part of the experiment played little with the pens. According the researchers, this behaviour was due to "overjustification"; the children were less motivated as they already know that their is a reward for their effort. In the second conditioned, the children who received the rewards unexpectly showed no changed in interest. Is is coherent to those who did not receive any reward at all. Both groups showed no decline with their perfomance.



Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation underlies behaviours performed purely for interests and enjoyment. Intrinsically motivated individuals seek proactivity and interaction with the world. They want to feel a sense of accomplishment. When individuals are at their healthiest, they are curious and seek challenges, novelty therefore engaging with interesting tasks.

There are two different characterisation of Intrinsic motivation;

1. Not all behaviours are driven by basic drives; thirst, hunder or sex.

2. Just as people have drives that must be satisfied for survival, people also have psychological needs that must be satisfied which allows them to thrive.

From this, Deci and Ryan suggests that there are 3 fundamental psychological needs that are essential for triving. These needs include *Autonomy; The need to make informed and conscious decisions. The need to have control over self.

*Mastery; The need to accomplish tasks and gain a sense of growth.

*Purpose; The need for purpose and reasons for actions and behaviour.

We can easily get caught up in extrinsic motivation. Our society is run by rewards and punishment thus encouraging extrinsic motication. However, it is important that we balance between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Why?
 * 1. Not every outcome and be controled; no matter how prepared or talented you are, there are always things we cannot control. Relying purely on extrinsic motivation can lead to dissapointment and failure when encountering setbacks or unexpected factors. Howeverm if you rely on intrinsic motivation, unexpected failures or factors allow for upside of situation. That is, we learn from our failure.
 * 2. You cannot always be dependent on other's opinions; extrinsically motivated inviduals become insecure and depend on external validations. This can lead to thinking about status or fame too often which can lead to decreased self-esteema and confidence. Intrinsically motivated individuals already have inner confidence and measure their status based on their worth and not what otherrs think about them.
 * 3. Long-term views; being extrinsically motivated, you valuate your goals on short-term changes whoch can lead to setbacks and failure. Being intrinsically motivated you are able to see the setbacks as just one factor in the way of your goals, therefore you are able to remain optimisitics and look at the bigger picture.

Time management strategies


Time management, a deliberate action aiming to use the time to accomplish specific, goal-directed activities effectively, is a necessary skill for maintaining scholarly productivity (Claessens, van Eerde and Rutte 2007). The benefit of effective time management can allow for improvement in job satisfaction and rest-related outcomes. Strategies for good time management fall into three broad categories; Time assessment behaviour, planning behaviours, and monitoring behaviours.

Robert Topp (Marquette University)


Researchers' productivity within an academic environment is often measured as deliverables. They refer to the outcomes of a researcher's activity and are often either quantifiable or qualitatively. Such deliverables may include publications, presentations, proposals submissions, funded research, Etc. However, it is a common misinterpretation that productivity results from time spent completing such deliverables. Time spent on deliverables products a curvilinear relationship; excessive wondering and time spent dilute both the quality and quantity of the deliverables. For example, Two researchers complete the exact deliverables; however, one completes it in 3 months and is thus considered productive, while another finished theirs in 6 months, thus less productive. Therefore time is critical in an academic environment. Thus time management directly contributes to an individual's productivity.

Implementing Time Management Strategies
*Set realistic and attainable goals; Identify the goal, develop the long-term goal and review said goal.

*Optimise realistic planning; Creating daily to-do lists, track the goals, create detailed schedule.

*Prioritisation; Acknowledge the primacy of the work, arrange goals according to its importance.

*Effective scheduling; schedule blocks or calendars.

Time Drain


A standard trinity of phenomena can divert one's ability to manage time effectively. Phenomena include procrastination, attending to interpretations, and lack of discipline. Interruption and lack of discipline allow one's attention to be drawn to distractions and, therefore, more procrastination.

"Life is difficult and includes pleasant and unpleasant activities. We can either moan about these unpleasant activities or work to complete them"- Peck (2003)

Marlene Cohen (University of Nebraska)


Existentialists have noted that a common similarity is that we have a body in space and in time. Time and time management are universal and central to our lives. *Prioritising and setting goals

"There is nothing so useless as doing efficiently that which should not be done at all" _Peter F. Drunker.

Setting goals allow for focus and prioritising activities the entire time. it also important to note that learning when to say no is essential. Sometimes we cannot do everything that is asked and therefore prioritising tasks and saying no is important to getting things done. *Plan Realistically

"I recommended that you take care of the minutes; for hours will take care of themselves," Lord Chesterfield.

Part of goal setting is to plan for smaller tasks that can be easily accomplished. We sometimes put off big tasks because they seem impossible to do; however, all that needs to be done is to break the more significant tasks into smaller tasks. *Staying Organised

"Do not confuse motion and progress. A rocking horse keeps moving but does not make any progress" Alfred A. Montapert.

Finding the best strategy for productivity is essential. What works for you-you should do. *Balance (Vacation, rest, exercise)

It is taking time to enjoy other activities that are not stressful to maintain creativity and positivity. Affective time management is associated with more excellent academic and lower anxiety in students (Richler V). However, it is hard to find a balance between studies and day-to-day lives.

Study techniques
- Case study about academic and time management

feature boxes.

Why is time management difficult?
- Procratination -Theory? -Competing interest -Lack of motivation -mental/health isssues -Work importance -Displine

Importance of good well-being

Mental Illness

How can we improve time management?
-Tips

How the brain works

Culture and time

Quizzes
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: + True - False
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{Long quizzes are a good idea: - True + False
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To learn about different types of quiz questions, see Quiz.

Conclusion
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.