Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Anomie and motivation

Overview


John was born into poverty. He grew up with a single mother who worked three jobs to provide for John and his younger sister. John knew from a very young age that his family was poor and would often experience unkind stares and whispers from his classmates. He was jealous of people his age whose parents could afford to buy their children new clothes and toys.

When he was 15, John found a low-paying job near his house because he did not have the means to travel further for more money. At 18 years old, John started his dream course at university. He was also asked by his ageing mother to contribute financially to the family. John found the education-employment balance tricky and eventually had to drop out of university. He was unable to secure a higher-paying job because of his lack of education. Due to this, John felt worthless and helpless (see Figure 1).

Experiencing an increasing disdain for the societal norms and values that prevented his university dreams, John turned to criminal activities in retaliation.

The concept of anomie was first introduced through the discipline of sociology, defining a social condition where the norms and values of society are weakened, and both the individual and collective responses to this situation (Pillay et al., 2023). A society experiencing anomie is characterised by disintegration and deregulation due to a perceived breakdown in the social fabric, including a lack of trust or a loss of moral standards (Teymoori et al., 2016). However, the concept can also apply to psychological settings, with many overlapping sociological notions. Psychological anomie is thus defined as a shared perception of the state of society and how this affects an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours (Teymoori et al., 2017). It is interesting, then, to examine the motivations behind a person experiencing a state of anomie.

Motivation can be defined as an internal condition that desires change. In this context, motivational psychology examines the "why" behind behaviours associated with anomie, such as delinquency and crime. Motivational theories can also help to explain how anomie and motivation affect and are affected by one another.

The case study above demonstrates how societal values and subsequent restraining factors that are integral to said society can push people into a state of anomie. John experienced a lack of trust in a hierarchical society that places affluent people above others but does not provide ample opportunity for disadvantaged people to accumulate wealth. He was motivated to violate social norms and pursue criminal activities because he saw no other way of existing in an unreliable society.

This chapter addresses both personal and small-group behavioural responses to anomie and investigates how psychological theories, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and learned helplessness, can be applied to anomie experiences. Finally, some strategies for overcoming anomie are explored.

Focus questions:
 * What is anomie?
 * How does anomie affect behaviour?
 * How do different concepts of motivation relate to anomie?
 * How does institutional anomie theory relate to motivation?
 * How can anomie be overcome?

What is anomie?


Anomie is a social condition in which societal norms and values are weakened. French sociologist and originator of the term, Émile Durkheim explained anomie as a result of the cultural and institutional changes of modernisation that negatively affect social relationships (Pillay et al., 2023). The concept of anomie has historically been applied to the dynamics of societies in the midst of national political crises, such as the rioting and social disintegration of the last two decades in Nepal and the rise of radical political movements as a result of Greece’s severely depleted economy (Teymoori et al., 2017). A state of anomie thus exists between the individual and the social system, and reflects how people respond to broader sociocultural changes. Psychological literature on the topic examines how microlevel responses may produce, maintain, or overcome macrolevel societal perceptions and feelings of anomie (Teymoori et al., 2017).

Anomie has been defined in sometimes conflicting ways by different scholars. Nevertheless, the through line connecting these definitions are the presence of a range of psychological conditions including alienation, meaninglessness, helplessness, and confusion (see Figure 2) (Teymoori et al., 2017). Feelings associated with anomie can motivate individuals towards certain behaviours. The concept was first applied to motives behind crime and suicide (Durkheim, 1952; Merton, 1938), but can also extend to social withdrawal and student cheating.



The arrival of colonial powers in the 18th century led to the decimation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in Australia. Appropriating the country for themselves, white settlers massacred, enslaved, and ousted the original custodians from their land (see Figure 3). Disease, disruption, and death were brought about by colonisation, irrevocably destroying spiritual connections and sacred practices of First Nations peoples (Yarra City Council, n.d.).

A state of anomie was created through white settlement in Australia due to the denial of the fundamental human rights of the subjugated peoples (Spencer, 2000). As a result of colonisation, First Nations peoples in Australia have long suffered feelings associated with a loss of country, identity, belonging, and a sense of hopelessness about the future.

The Stolen Generations further added to this as countless First Nations children were forcibly taken from their families and rehomed in settlements and missions between 1910 and the 1970s, with the intention of assimilation and eventually the annihilation of Indigenous Australian cultures (Australian Human Rights Commission, n.d.). The children were denied access to their communities and cultures, and taught to reject their heritage in favour of white culture (Korff, 2022). Some Indigenous Australians resorted to alcohol and drugs or crime in response to anomic feelings of alienation, meaninglessness, helplessness, and confusion as a result of this trauma (Spencer, 2000).

Still to this day, many First Nations people experience intergenerational trauma due to the ever-present systematic oppression of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in Australian society (Haebich, 2015).

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation and anomie
Intrinsic motivation is the tendency to engage in tasks that are novel and challenging because one wants to investigate their own capabilities (Ryan & Deci, 2000). People who are intrinsically motivated seek personal growth and enjoyment. Extrinsic motivation, however, is the tendency to engage in tasks due to external or environmental factors such as the anticipation of a reward or punishment and commands from superiors (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

In terms of anomie, it has been found that extrinsic motivation can have a significant influence on the anomie behaviour of university students (Liu et al., 2022). Researchers have found a negative relationship between academic motivation and anomie behaviour (Liu et al., 2022). Academic motivation includes passing exams, meeting attendance requirements, and achieving high scores. It is posited that students with strong academic achievement motivation have higher academic goals, and thus will not allow themselves to develop possibly harmful anomie behaviour for the sake of achieving those goals (Liu et al., 2022).

A positive relationship between economic motivation and anomie behaviour was found. Economic motivation in this context involves wanting to use university for economic benefits or scholarship opportunities. In both male and female students, the stronger economic motivation meant that they were more likely to adopt anomie behaviour (Liu et al., 2022). This could occur because students who are solely focused on monetary outcomes often fail to foster protective factors against anomie, such as intrinsic motivation and social support. This study did not examine the effects of intrinsic motivation on anomie behaviours.

A different study examined the effects of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on anomie in university students (Chen et al., 2023). They found that both types of motivation were negatively related to anomie behaviour. Further, intrinsic motivation was found to have a positive effect on reducing an individual’s anomie behaviour (Chen et al., 2023). This is because intrinsic motivation comes from an inherent interest in the activity itself, which manifests as voluntary participation and conscious rule-abiding, rather than an interest in violating norms. Thus, by fostering intrinsic motivations such as competence and enjoyment, anomie behaviours, including undesirable feelings, can be reduced (Chen et al., 2023).

The researchers also found that the stronger a student’s extrinsic motivation, the fewer anomie behaviours are experienced (Chen et al., 2023). However, after controlling for the role of intrinsic motivation, it was found that the direct effect of extrinsic motivation on anomie behaviour became positive, but not significant (Chen et al., 2023). This suggests that extrinsic motivation can have a predisposing effect on anomie behaviours.

Learned helplessness and anomie
The learned helplessness hypothesis posits that when events are uncontrollable, an individual realises that behaviour and situational outcomes are independent of each other, producing certain motivational deficits (Maier & Seligman, 1976). The individual learns that the situation will not change regardless of coping efforts (Olson & Schober, 1993). Through the seminal work of Maier and Seligman (1976), it was found that when an organism experiences uncontrollable events, the motivation to respond against future aversive events diminishes.

This theory can be applied to the anomic feelings of people experiencing poverty. Higher feelings of anomie are correlated with poverty, especially where family and social support levels are low (Kim & Pridemore, 2005). The social stigma surrounding the poor can lead to a cycle of poverty or generational poverty (Payne, 2005). One aspect of this is a learned helplessness that is passed down from parents to children, and thus a generational sense of anomie. People who hold this mentality do not believe they can escape poverty and therefore have no motivation to try to alleviate their feelings of alienation and powerlessness (Payne, 2005). Through this, the cycle of poverty and anomic feelings continues.

 {Examples of intrinsic motivation include partaking in physical activity because you find it fun, taking on more responsibility because you want to challenge yourself, and curiosity. + True - False
 * type="[]"}

{A person experiencing poverty and anomic feelings of isolation and worthlessness is more likely to strive towards bigger economic goals than they are to give up on alleviating their negative feelings. - True + False
 * type="[]"}

Institutional anomie theory
Extending upon Robert K. Merton’s (1938) work, Rosenfeld and Messner (1997) developed institutional anomie theory, describing how antisocial behaviours, such as crime and violence, result from the dominance of the economy over other societal values and therefore weakened social controls. In this way, the psychological conditions associated with anomie, such as alienation, meaninglessness, helplessness, and confusion, can sometimes motivate individuals to engage in antisocial behaviours.

Crime and deviance
Messner and Rosenfeld (2001) argued that societies that are characterised by this institutional imbalance experience elevated crime rates. For example, a study concluded that non-economic institutions, such as family and education, mediate the relationship between the economy and instrumental violence (Maume & Lee, 2003). A similar study found that the interaction between economic and non-economic institutions assists in explaining the disparity in property crime rates across US states (Chamlin & Cochran, 1995). Specifically, the researchers discovered that property crime rates are higher in states with higher poverty rates that are not counterbalanced by participation in non-economic institutions (Chamlin & Cochran, 1995). Further, a transnational study consisting of 45 countries found homicide rates to be significantly related to negative interactions between economic inequality and social institutions (Savolainen, 2000).

Authoritarianism
When an individual’s needs are not met, the response is to rely on alternative strategies to satisfy those needs. Sometimes, this takes the form of engaging in control-restoring ideologies (Teymoori et al., 2017). The literature demonstrates that in high anomie societies, where basic needs are not met thus uncertainty and insecurity are rife, individuals consequently value authority and become intolerant of people unlike themselves (Haslam & Reicher, 2007). This value shift is linked to higher levels of authoritarianism in anomic societies (Agroskin, 2010; Oesterreich, 2005; Scheepers et al., 1992). It is postulated that a shift towards authoritarian ideologies may lessen the negative effects of anomie on personal wellbeing by allowing an individual to believe that their fundamental human needs will be satisfied under a new set of values (Teymoori et al., 2017). This hypothesis is supported by findings that participants experiencing higher levels of authoritarianism demonstrate a lower number of depression symptoms and lower levels of mental distress (Van Hiel & De Clercq, 2009).

Tribalism
Another related strategy to satisfy the needs neglected by an anomic society is to form smaller groups. People withdraw from their previously weakened social ties and are thus motivated to replace them with smaller, stronger, and more secure social relationships (Teymoori et al., 2017). Prompted by anomie, tribalism emerges where individuals form highly cohesive small groups (Swann et al., 2012). Depending on goals and other external factors, these groups may find motivation in political or ideological agendas, or may solely provide protection for its members (Teymoori et al., 2017). For example, it is theorised that anomie experienced by the population of Greece in recent years due to recession and debt crises has led to the emergence of highly politicised groups focussed on social change (for better or worse), either toward a left-wing (Syriza) or right-wing (Golden Dawn) direction (Teymoori et al., 2017). When anomie is high, individuals are motivated to create and maintain smaller groups because they act to restore a sense of control and provide a foundation for self-definition and identification (Castano et al., 2003; Fritsche et al., 2011). Further, tribalised groups act as a buffer against stress and anxiety and predict higher life satisfaction (Haslam et al., 2005).

Student cheating
Student cheating is an example of how the exaggerated emphasis on economic success, especially in Western countries, has trickled into other social institutions. The extrinsic motivation of amassing wealth can force individuals into delinquent behaviours, such as student cheating in order to achieve the goals society has placed them. A study surveying American and international undergraduates asked students about cheating behaviours and their economic goals (Muftic, 2006). The results found that American students were more extrinsically motivated towards economic capital and also were more likely to admit to cheating (Muftic, 2006). Students with a higher adherence to the societal value placed on money had a higher likelihood of cheating (Muftic, 2006). It can thus be reasoned that to escape feelings of anomie, individuals will be extrinsically motivated by economic capital to engage in delinquent behaviours, such as cheating.

How can anomie be overcome?
The feelings associated with anomie are generally negative, such as meaninglessness, worthlessness, confusion and alienation. Thus, it is helpful to understand that a state of anomie can be overcome. At the microlevel, changing individual behaviour would act to shape broader societal perceptions of the stigma attached to anomic situations, such as poverty (Teymoori et al., 2017). For instance, subgroups experiencing anomie might be motivated to promote social change which may lead to societal or governmental responses in favour of general wellbeing. An example of this is the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa led by Nelson Mandela (Teymoori et al., 2017).

Another strategy would be to start at the macrolevel whereby authorities, such as governments and lawmakers, would take preventative action to discontinue the emergence of anomie. This could occur by implementing appropriate strategies and policies in favour of high-risk groups, such as racial minorities and people facing low SES.

It is also suggested that anomie behaviours could be suppressed if extrinsic motivation could effectively be transformed into intrinsic motivation. A study found that extrinsic motivation can successfully be transformed into intrinsic motivation in university students (Chen et al., 2023). This suggests that although intrinsic motivation is more stable than extrinsic, individuals have relatively limited innate interest, calling for a gradual transformation of extrinsic to intrinsic through the internalisation of motivation (Chen et al., 2023). This process shifts an individual’s behaviour to self-regulation, which as the highest level of moral development can inhibit anomie behaviours (Chen et al., 2023).

Conclusion
Anomie refers to a disconnection from normative social values that arises from experiences of helplessness. Anomie is a concept introduced by sociology but can be applied in psychological literature investigating personal motivations. Coined by Émile Durkheim, anomie is a social condition where the norms and values of a society are weakened, through mistrust, devaluation of needs, or other. Therefore, psychological literature concerned with the concept studies how anomie affects an individual’s thoughts and feelings, ultimately examining why people are motivated towards anomie-related behaviours.

This literature has found that extrinsic motivation has a significant impact on anomie behaviours in students, in both a positive and negative way (Liu et al., 2022). A different study discovered that intrinsic motivations significantly reduce the likelihood of a student adopting anomie behaviours, such as a withdrawal from social life and acting upon negative feelings (Chen et al., 2023).

The learned helplessness hypothesis has also been applied, finding that higher feelings of anomie are associated with the cycle of poverty (Kim & Pridemore, 2005), in which a person can have no motivation to try to move towards a wealthier life because they believe that it will never be successful.

Institutional anomie theory has aimed to explain how feelings associated with anomie, such as alienation and helplessness, can motivate individuals towards antisocial behaviours. These include crime and deviance, authoritarianism, tribalism, and student cheating.

Finally, it is important to note that anomic feelings can be overcome, leading to a hopefully more enriching life for the individual. Promoting social change, implementing relevant policies and laws, and attempting to transform extrinsic motivation into intrinsic motivation could all suppress the negative emotions associated with anomie and thus the undesirable behaviours that are motivated by these feelings.