Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Childhood trauma and criminal behaviour

Overview
Case Study:

Let’s look at Charlie and Ben, both grew up in the same suburb and attended the same school. Charlie had attentive parents, who regularly engaged in his school work, provided him lunch for school, and showed no physical or emotional violence at home. Charlie’s parents strive to provide him with a safe and secure home. Ben however, often went to school with smelly, unwashed clothes and was frequently ill. He often witnessed his father physically abuse his mother. Ben would try to protect his younger siblings, and one time got hit himself. Ben sometimes did not attend school as his parents would not care of his whereabouts. There was never food in the house and Ben and his siblings were often hungry. How do you think Charlie and Ben’s family household influenced their development? Do you think Ben is disadvantaged compared to Charlie? How might Ben be at risk to developing abusive tendencies?

Trauma is a complex experience which requires both inclusion of objective and subjective components, including discrepancy between threatening factors in a situation, intertwined with individual coping abilities. It is not solely defined by the traumatic situation itself, but a continuing socio-psychological process across time, which continues to develop with an individual (Sar & Ozturk, 2005). Trauma can include exposure to war, threatened or actual physical assault, sexual violence, kidnap or hostage situations, terrorist attacks, torture, natural disasters, severe motor accidents or witnessing domestic violence or violent assaults (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Childhood trauma is considered a highly prevalent risk factor for engaging in violent, or anti-social behaviour (Altintas & Bilici, 2018). Individuals who are exposed to a trauma(s) during childhood such as abuse or neglect are found to be far more likely to commit violent acts than those who did not (Fox et al, 2015). Even when controlling for environmental and biological factors, those who commit serious violent crimes tend to have higher rates of trauma and abuse in childhood (Fox et al., 2015).

What is childhood trauma?


Trauma can be categorised broadly into three types (Courtois, 2008):
 * 1) Acute: a singular traumatic event, typically in brief duration. Examples could include car accident (see Figure 1), natural disaster
 * 2) Chronic: repeated exposure and often interpersonal. Examples could include years of domestic violence, war
 * 3) Complex: exposure to multiple traumas that can be wide ranging and prolonged. There are usually multiple interrelated traumas. Examples could include neglect, family trauma

Due to children’s naivety and vulnerability, developing brains, lack of coping strategies and availability of other resources, exposure to trauma at a young age can cause serious lifetime harm (van de Kolk, 2003).

{There is a mass shooting at a child's school. What type of trauma is this? + Acute - Chronic - Complex
 * type=""}

{A child witnesses their mother be repeatedly abused. The mother and child leave the home, resulting in homelessness. What type of trauma is this? - Acute - Chronic + Complex
 * type=""}

Engagement in criminal activity
92% of youth involved in the justice system have reported at least one type of trauma (Dierkhising et al., 2013). Experiencing trauma during childhood can increase the odds of subsequent juvenile behaviour by up to 200% (Fox et al., 2015). Even when controlling for gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and family structure, maltreated children between 14 and 18 are more likely to engage in subsequent criminal behaviour (Fox et al., 2015). Due to difficulties in regulating anger and witnessing violence, abused children are more likely to be aggressive and externalise their violent behaviour (Fox et al., 2015). The failure to learn how to control the irritable impulses creates a child who is unable to resist criminal temptations (Nagin & Tremblay, 1999). This results in minor problems, such as annoying others through teasing, leading to serious violence (Nagin & Tremblay, 1999). It is difficult for maltreated children to regulate their emotions, resulting in a greater tendency to externalise their emotions through violence.

Unresolved childhood trauma has been associated with acting-in and acting-out behaviours (see Table 1), with higher rates of incarceration with the latter (Altinas & Bilici, 2018). The Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network reports that one in 20 American males under the age of 18 are victims of sexual abuse and assault every year. However, incarcerated individuals are extremely likely to have experienced childhood trauma, with one in six incarcerated American males experiencing physical or sexual abuse by the age of 18 (Wolff & Shi, 2012). Children who are subject to trauma at a young age show a greater tendency towards aggression and overall risky behaviour such as lying, running away, and externalising anti-social behaviour (Tuscic, Flander & Mateskovic, 2013).

One of the most robust predictors of persistent delinquency in adults, is exposure to chronic trauma at a young age (Dierkhising et al., 2013). As described by Courtois (2008), chronic trauma is ongoing and personal, often prolonged through generations. The trajectory of a child's development, ensuring the capacity to manage their emotions and aggressiveness, is damaged during this vital few years (Dierkhising et al., 2013).

Further consequences as a result of childhood trauma
Higher chances of engaging in criminal activity and violence is just one of many consequences traumatised children face. Brain development, emotional regulation, substance abuse, academic issues, and mental illnesses are all highly prevalent co-occuring consequences.

Brain development and emotional regulation
Childhood trauma has been heavily researched into the longitudinal effects of brain development and emotional regulation (Cicchetti, 2013). Maltreated children are more likely to develop atypicality's in neurobiological processes, emotion recognition and regulation, attachment issues, self esteem, social information processing, as well as peer and romantic relationships (Cicchetti, 2013).

As a result of aggressive, and typically abusive households, maltreated children have difficulties expressing and understanding their own emotions (Fox et al., 2015). The maturation of the prefrontal cortex is imperative to the performance of social appropriateness, judgement and abstract thinking (van de Kolk, 2003). Traumatised children have trouble in developing these areas of the brain correctly. Alternatively, children who are shown little to no signs of attention can have extreme developmental delays, and such it has shown to be related to poor peer relationships and development of aggressive behaviours in a lack of understanding to develop healthy relationships (van de Kolk, 2003). It is vital that a caregiver provides a framework for moderating arousal, providing a child the balance between soothing and stimulation (van de Kolk, 2003).



Key biological systems are disturbed when the body is under a lot of stress. It is beneficial for our bodies to have moderate levels of stress managing chemicals, however repeated prolonged trauma such as abuse, neglect, sexual assault, natural disaster or war can result in permanent damage (Fox et al., 2015 & van de Kolk, 2003). Biological systems such as the sympathetic nervous system, which includes the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune system (see Figure 2), have shown to exhibit allostatic load (Cicchetti, 2013). Allostatic load, characterised by cumulative dysregulation across many biological systems, resulting in changes of the brain, major organs and neuro-chemical systems that underpin behaviour, emotion, personality and mood (Cicchetti, 2013). This can result in chronic issues such as increased risk for hormonal dysregulation, obesity, cardiovascular difficulties and unhealthy lifestyle choices (Cicchetti, 2013).

Substance abuse
Substance abuse is a co-occurring risk factor for youth exposed to childhood trauma (Cicchetti, 2013). Substance abuse problems are common in justice involved youth, with 1.9 million of the 2.4 million youth arrested reported substance abuse problem (Dierkhising et al., 2013). These youth were either under the influence at the time of their arrest, or were caught and arrested in a drug related offence (Dierkhising et al., 2013). As highlighted in the chapter focussed on substance abuse, traumatised youth are at a higher risk for development of a substance abuse. Individuals often turn to substances to self medicate their pain and distress (Marcenko et al., 2000).

Academic outcomes
Child maltreatment and aversive childhood experiences are generally more associated with lower life outcomes such as criminal activity and lower education (Mitchell et al., 2021 & Ochoa & Constantin, 2023). Positive future orientation, the measure of personal goals and future expectations in both personal and career, are essential to the identity of adolescents and young adults (Ochoa & Constantin, 2023). Children, especially boys, who witness violence are more likely to have lower positive future orientation aspirations and show less engagement in developing goals towards their future (Ochoa & Constantin, 2023). Aversive childhood experiences such as sexual assault negatively impact the likelihood of the child attending tertiary education or having successful career opportunities (Mitchell et al., 2021 & Ochoa & Constantin, 2023). Compared to children who did not experience aversive upbringings, maltreated children are more likely to be held back a grade and need additional support (Ochoa & Constantin, 2023). Importantly, these findings are not universal and individuals who have been abused can be some of the most resilient, defying these odds (Mitchell et al., 2021). There is evidence that academic success and high achievement may be a coping mechanisms for children who are experiencing abuse at home (Mitchell et al., 2021).

Mental illnesses
One in eight people across the world live with a mental illness every year (World Health Organisation, 2022). These numbers are only rising due the COVID-19 pandemic, with a 29% increase in anxiety and depression rates in 2020 (World Health Organisation, 2022). Childhood stress is often associated with mental health problems including anxiety, depression and personality disorders (Shalev, 2013). The inability to regulate emotions effectively results in vulnerable people and increases their risk of developing a mental illness. Subsequent trauma during adulthood, or unresolved childhood trauma, has shown to signal a higher risk of PTSD in adulthood (Karatziase et al., 2017). Although mental illness is a prevalent issue worldwide, it poses particular challenges in the justice system (Ogloff et al., 2007). Major illnesses such as depression or schizophrenia are three to five times more prevalent in the justice system than the general population, with similar results found in New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom and Ireland (Ogloff et al., 2007).

Case Study Update: Recently Charlie was caught lying to his parents. Charlie spoke to his parents about the emotions he was feeling and together they managed the situation. Charlie was provided a safe space to regulate and comment on his emotions. Alternatively, Ben was frustrated and angry that he was always looking after his siblings. He tried to talk to his Dad but it only resulted in Ben being hit. The next day at school Ben was tired and frustrated at his friends for teasing him that he reacted by hitting another student. Ben was suspended from school and sent home for the rest of the week. Ben’s parents did not care where he was, so he snuck out to the park to hang with some older children who were drinking. Why do you think Ben hit the other student? How might missing school impact Ben’s education?

{What does allostatic load refer to?: - Chronic maltreatment, typically referring to physical assault + Cumulative chronic stress across many biological systems - The maturation of the prefrontal cortex
 * type=""}

{What major mental illnesses are three to five times more prevalent in the justice system?: - Depression and anxiety - Schizophrenia and anxiety + Schizophrenia and depression
 * type=""}

Attachment theory
It is necessary to address the quality of the parental child attachment bond when discussing childhood trauma (Van de Kolk, 2003). Children largely mimic their parents, or caregivers, behaviour with the greater disorganised parent seen in the child (Van de Kolk, 2003). 80% of traumatised children have disorganised attachment styles, with the security of the bond one of the most important protective factors (Van de Kolk, 2003). The development of normal play and discovery involves a balance between soothing and stimulating environments, with the parent providing the key demonstration (Field & Reite, 1984). Providing soothing environments not only protects a child, but provides a framework for them to develop the necessary structures to manage stressful events (Van de Kolk, 2003). Secure children are able to rely on their emotions and stable thoughts to allow them to manage uncontrollable stress (van de Kolk, 2003). When caregivers are inconsistent or neglectful, children will become distressed resulting in hyper-aroused children who cannot interpret their emotions or behaviours (Van de Kolk, 2003).

Social learning theory
Albert Bandura's popular social learning theory (SLT), is a fundamental theory in explaining subsequent criminal activity in maltreated youth (Fox, 2017). When examining criminal activity through a SLT lens, it is proposed that violence is a learned behaviour, often specifically in the context of the home (Anderson & Kras, 2005). Bandura's theory supports that human behaviour is learned, acquired through experience and example rather than being an innate behaviour (Anderson & Kras, 2005). This is essential to understanding how individuals engage in aggression and describes the vicarious learning or modelling, without explicitly experiencing it themselves (Anderson & Kras, 2005). Exposure can be through seeing it, hearing it or observing the effects of it, for example injuries (Anderson & Kras, 2005). The child's views on responses to stressful stimuli will shape their values and understanding of aggression reaching desired results, with research indicating youth who witnessed violence had greater acceptance of violence and hostile social skills (Anderson & Kras, 2005). SLT is crucial to understanding the longitudinal effects of domestic violence with the intimate nature of the crime (Anderson & Kras, 2005).

What can we do about it?
Serious, violent and reoffending criminals are expensive, with US violent offenders costing society US$63,870 each year just in correctional facility costs (Fox et al., 2015). Development of screening tools would allow identification of at risk children (Fox et al., 2015). The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) score was developed in the mid 1990s to evaluate at risk youth's potential to engage in criminal behaviour (Fox et al., 2015). The ACE has demonstrated to relate serious negative health issues such as heart and lung disease and cancer to those who children who experienced serious mistreatment in their youth (Fox et al., 2015). Psychologists found similar results with those who commit serious crimes with high rates of trauma, abuse and other harmful experiences, even when controlling for environmental factors (Fox et al., 2015). Table 2 describes a variety of therapies and strategies that can be used to treat trauma in maltreated youth.

The Early Development Index (EDI) was developed in Canada with aims to measure and capture data about children who are at risk of vulnerabilities. A similar concept was introduced in Australia in 2009, the Australian Early Development Census (AEDC), which allowed teachers to identity students in as risk of five categories. These categories include, physical health and wellbeing, social competence, emotional maturity, language and cognitive skills (school based) and communication skills/general knowledge. The data founded from the EDI and AEDC, can help organisations identity and assist families and individuals who are at risk of falling into vulnerable categories. This data highlights the significance of childhood trauma and developmental delays, and allows professionals and families to work together to prevent further harm.

Case Study Update: Using the knowledge you have just gained, how might you explain Ben’s troubles with aggression and coping mechanisms. Reflect on psychological theories, and use the treatments above to provide a therapy style to aid Ben and his family.

Conclusion
Through the repetitive and generational nature of trauma, the interruption of developmental growth, intertwined with the caregivers failure to provide adequate attention, safety and protection, risks the child becoming compromised in various ways including biology, attachment issues, behaviour regulation and education (Zilberstein, 2014). Trauma can present through acute, chronic or complex ways with each type having different generational effects. Attachment theories and SLT are two approaches that can assist in understanding foundational causes and implications of trauma. Alongside engagement in subsequent criminal behaviour, substance abuse, lower academic outcomes and mental health problems are all troubles maltreated youth battle. Subsequent engagement in criminal activity has strong relations to childhood trauma, with generational trauma influencing biology and emotional capacities. However, it is important to remember that with early intervention and focussed treatment, a child's trajectory can be deterred, relieving them of poor outcomes and assisting in recovering from traumatic experiences.