Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Dark tetrad and motivation

Overview
Scenario



Greg is a 36-year-old golf instructor but when he logs into his Facebook profile, he becomes Tony the 20-year-old cyber-bully. Tony spends his evenings ‘trolling’ people online. This online persona is designed to elicit an emotional reaction from people, by using offensive slurs to aggravate and emotionally provoke others into retaliating. When Tony fails in his attention-seeking endeavours he either comments more repulsive things or moves on to a different Facebook page, with a different audience. This is a clear example of narcissism as he wants attention, psychopathy as he is only engaging with people so long as they give him his desired outcome, and sadism as he enjoys seeing other people suffer. These are examples of Dark Tetrad traits.

Imagine a world defined by a lack of empathy, manipulation, egoism, impulsivity, disagreeableness, and callousness which engross almost every aspect of how people act and behave. Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism and sadism are the Dark Tetrad members and represent the ‘dark side’ of personality. These traits, often associated with nefarious or villainous behaviours, have been observed through some of the most vile, cunning and capable people throughout history and fiction.

The Dark Tetrad is a psychological theory of four socially offensive personality traits that describe malevolent and unfavourable behaviour. This chapter explores the complex structure of what motivates Dark Tetrad behaviours, how people come to possess such traits and address the negative effects these traits have on social relationships.


 * What is the Dark Tetrad and what are the traits associated with it?
 * How does the Dark Tetrad influence theories of motivation?
 * Why are people with Dark Tetrad traits motivated to utilise these behaviours?

What is the dark tetrad?
In 2002, Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams defined three socially offensive personality types (narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism) (Paulhus et al, 2021). Shortly after, a fourth personality type (sadism) was added and created what is known as the Dark Tetrad. Through the body of research presented by Dr Paulhus and Williams, narcissism, psychopathy, machiavellianism, and sadism were shown to overlap in many ways but remain distinct constructs (Paulhus & Williams, 2002).

All four Dark Tetrad personality variables describe people who lack empathy. Collectively, the Dark Tetrad traits can be characterised by one’s self-interest and anti-social approach towards achieving and satisfying personal goals in interpersonal and/or professional settings (Koehn et al, 2020).

Narcissism
Narcissism is characterised by an inflated self-esteem, superiority over others, grandiosity and desire for admiration and leadership (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012). A narcissist gains their power and exaggerated self-worth by devaluing others. Narcissists are also constantly seeking external validation, therefore act in extreme ways to achieve admiration (McCain et al, 2016). As a part of the Dark Tetrad, this trait highlights the self-centred and self-serving goal that these traits have, and hints at how this can cause distinct social consequences if people were to adopt them more consistently



From their actions, narcissistic people experience high status, short-term popularity, success and a higher likelihood to obtain leadership positions (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012). However, narcissists are only appealing to others in brief interactions. With continual contact narcissists often become disliked, unpopular and are unlikely to sustain long term relationships (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012). As such, narcissists fear rejection and criticism which in turn leads them to move from group to group when they begin to feel powerless.

Psychopathy
Psychopathy is categorised as an anti-social conduct, and often defined through the impulsivity, manipulation and a lack of guilt and remorse exhibited by those who fall under its description (Rogoza & Cieciuch, 2018). Psychopathy shares a similarity with narcissism as people with these traits often perform well in professional environments and in leadership positions (Rogoza & Cieciuch, 2018), as they often strive to be business and social leaders, and require a distinct sense of self to respond to challenges from others who desire these positions as well.

Where psychopaths differ from narcissists is the fact that they often respond to temptation and sensation-seeking as opposed to social recognition and status, which often results in them facing serious consequences. Their lack of empathy and inability to read the emotions of others means they lack remorse when manipulating others or participating in criminal activity (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012).



Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism involves manipulation and self-interest. Those who possess machiavellian traits are callous, have a cynical outlook and participate in behaviours such as stealing, manipulation and betrayal (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012; Bagozzi et al, 2013). Machiavellian behaviours can be seen in the form of consistent lies, manipulation to get ahead and revenge seeking. The crux of machiavellianism involves a want for power. There is no hesitation when exploiting others to achieve this goal (Rauthmann & Kolar, 2012).

Machiavellianism was originally used to describe the traits that famous political theorist, Niccolo Machiavelli, espoused in his work, The Prince (Zuckert, 2019). In this book, which was initially presented as a gift to Italian royalty and served as a guide on how to rule effectively, Machiavelli highlighted the role that cunning, deception, and the breaking of promises had in ensuring the survival of the state. While his work may have initially been produced as a guide for heads of state, his work gained a reputation for promoting evil traits which would negatively impact society if adopted en masse. In psychology, his work highlights the drive some people have to employ ruthless tactics to satisfy their own personal goals, even if they are morally objectionable (Zuckert, 2019).

Sadism
Sadistic behaviour includes the want for control, inflicting physical or mental pain, instigating humiliation, and finding pleasure and enjoyment in watching others suffer (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Sadistic behaviour is also seen through inflicting pain upon living creatures and delinquent behaviours in school students. Sadism and psychopathy are similar as sadistic behaviour is a predictor of criminal activity and psychopathic traits (Mededovic and Petrovic, 2015). Sadism can also be seen as an extension of narcissism, as while narcissism is the belief that a person is better than those around them, sadism takes this a step further by inflicting pain on those seen as lesser than the sadistic individual. As such, sadism provides the final aspect of the Dark Tetrad, and highlights how these traits can result in the infliction of some of the most extreme forms of pain on others (Paulhus et al, 2021).

Ted Bundy was a serial killer who lured women, kidnapped and beat them unconscious, sexually assaulted, and killed his victims. His superficial charm and charisma was used to disguise his horrible crimes (McCann, 2021). - He is often cited as a clear example of psychopathic behaviour, although his actions demonstrate that he likely employed all four Dart Tetrad traits to achieve his evil goals (see Figure 2).

The 'Big Five' and HEXACO models of personality


The Big Five and HEXACO models are commonly used to explain the most fundamental aspects which make up one's personality. The five and six respective traits found in these personality models include conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, extraversion and neuroticism (which are shared between both models - see Figure 4), and honesty-humility (the additional variable included in the HEXACO model). Together, the Big Five and HEXACO models can be used to understand how people engage with the world, including the adverse impact of Dark Tetrad traits (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Paulhus and Williams (2002), found that across the Dark Tetrad, people with at least one of the Dark Tetrad traits exhibited low agreeableness and low honesty-humility. Scoring low on honesty-humility suggests a lack of sincerity and fairness, indicates a tendency to be greedy and highly entitled (Ashton et al, 2014). Those who score low in agreeableness were more likely to be critical in their evaluations of others, lack patience and forgiveness and are often viewed as stubborn (Ashton et al, 2014).

''' Test yourself!  {Which of the following best describes sadistic behaviour?''': - Lack of guilt and remorse + Enjoyment from watching others in pain and suffering - Inflated sense of self-importance and lack of empathy - Callous, cynical and revenge seeking
 * type=""}

{What two traits from the Big Five/HEXACO models are found across each personality type in the dark tetrad?: - Agreeableness and conscientiousness - Extraversion and agreeableness - Honesty-humility and conscientiousness + Honesty-humility and agreeableness
 * type=""}

{To which of the following theories of motivation can the Dart Tetrad be applied?: - Social determination theory (SDT) - Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation - Social exchange theory (SET) + All of the above
 * type=""}

Self-determination theory (SDT)
Self-determination theory highlights three key factors which influence people’s motivation and personality (Gagne & Deci, 2005). It encompasses their innate psychological needs which, when satisfied, provide greater overall wellbeing, motivation, and optimal growth (Gagne & Deci, 2005). Conversely, when not met, people are more likely to experience challenges, a lack of motivation to complete tasks, and thus sub-optimal development. The three psychological needs which comprise SDT include competence, relatedness, and autonomy, each of which influence the degree to which people feel they can influence their situation through their actions (Gagne & Deci, 2005).

Autonomy can best be described as one’s ability to make independent decisions and to be in control of their own actions (Gamble & Christensen, 2022). People want to feel that they are the decision-makers in their lives and are that their actions are not dictated by others. This influences how people feel in settings like the workplace and school, where their actions are more closely watched by others, hence why people often feel constrained by these environments.

Relatedness is characterised by one’s sense of belonging and connectedness with others (Gamble & Christensen, 2022). This means that the social groups around them support their actions and behaviours. This is why people congregate and engage in groups in areas of mutual interest, such as sports, community groups and religious organisations.

Competence describes feelings of capability and being able to accomplish challenging tasks (Gamble & Christensen, 2022). Tasks which are too easy will be considered boring and thus not worth engaging with, while tasks that are too difficult discourage engagement as they do not indicate and motivate progress. Finding the right balance regarding the challenge posed by any activity can ensure people develop while feeling rewarded for significant efforts being put into a task.

Internally, a person with Dark Tetrad traits would, under SDT, be motivated by their desire to be better than other people by being able to demonstrate that they are more competent than others or can achieve outcomes more freely – that they are in control (Gagne & Deci, 2005). This relatedness is social, meaning that their motivation is related to interpersonal value, highlighting their need for validation and dominance in a social group (Gamble & Christensen, 2022). Ultimately, this means people with Dark Tetrad traits value themselves in an interpersonal manner, and thus interpret the needs highlighted by SDT based on their value to others, rather than themselves.

A person with Dark Tetrad traits would attempt to manipulate these feelings in others to encourage outcomes which they would benefit from. People with Dark Tetrad traits would look to minimise feelings of autonomy, relatedness and competence in others if they wanted to encourage people to stop behaviours they did not like (Gamble & Christensen, 2022). Conversely, they would encourage these feelings if other people were engaging in behaviours they approved of. These manipulative actions demonstrate that people with Dark Tetrad traits may not only tie them their internal self-determination, but also may seek to influence the self-determination of others.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (as part of SDT)
Another aspect of SDT’s explanation for people’s motivation is the intrinsic and extrinsic incentives behind their behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Under this sub-theory, people are motivated by intrinsically motivated factors which push them to pursue behaviours even if they do not yield a tangible outcome, but instead are pursued to satisfy internal desires (Morris et al, 2022). This theory also considers extrinsic, or external factors, which motivate their actions based on environmental factors and outcomes. Both motivators are designed to minimise pain while maximising rewards from any situation, thus driving actions based on a psychological form of a cost-benefit analysis (Morris et al, 2022).

Based on these factors, people will develop and improve when they believe that there is a high benefit and low cost associated with positive behaviours, and will embrace problematic behaviours when these behaviours are more rewarding – or less costly to pursue. For people with Dark Tetrad traits, their intrinsic motivation is driven by their desire to dominate social structures, while the cost is risks to their social reputation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). They will thus implement Dark Tetrad traits to enhance the rewards from a situation, or if it means others will bear the costs of any given choice. This willingness to both dominate social paradigms while also putting costs on others distorts extrinsic rewards, and often means that intrinsic motivations are centred around feelings of self-image satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Social exchange theory
A third psychological theory, known as Social Exchange Theory (SET), can also be used to explore the impacts of Dark Tetrad traits. Put simply, social exchange theory is the belief that when people engage with one-another, with groups, or their environment, there is an exchange of value (Forsyth et al, 2021). This value can be a variety of different things, including monetary, services, skills development, capability enhancement, the reduction of risks, and/or a person’s emotional wellbeing. This has direct psychological impacts, as the value of what is gained from any social exchange is weighed up and re-evaluated and events unfold over time. As such, this unique perspective can likewise highlight a few interesting points regarding the impact of Dark Tetrad traits on social interactions (Forsyth et al, 2021).

For social exchanges to function, there must some form of comparable exchange in value. This comparison is fundamentally altered when someone with Dark Tetrad traits engages in social exchanges. Forsyth et al (2021), highlights the impact of Dark Tetrad traits clearly, as the characteristics of the Dark Tetrad negatively impact the ability for people to establish the common ground necessary for social development.

In practice, this results in a breakdown in norms across a variety of social forums, including workplaces, schools, universities, and the internet. As SET articulates that social relationships are built through the repeated and reliable exchange of benefits, and often the reduction of costs associated with activities, there needs to be a series of open and honest engagements (Forsyth et al, 2021). People with Dark Tetrad traits, being more inclined to deceive others, undermine these exchanges, and employ tactics which limit long-term cooperation and success. As such, Dark Tetrad traits present a continued and negative impact on social engagement.

Personal and professional relationships
Many studies have explored relationship retention, psychological abuse, and the Dark Tetrad. These studies evaluated different forms of relationship control, and have observed the real-world manifestation of these psychological traits. The behaviours observed included verbal and physical threats to their partners, which highlighted a desire to gain control over another person’s autonomous behaviour (Hughes and Samuels, 2021). This was most clearly seen in Hughes and Samuels (2021), who conducted a study which investigated personality and romantic relationships and found that the Dark traits were closely related to everyday relationship control. Similar evaluations of romantic relationships found that people with Dark Tetrad traits were more likely to prefer more casual, low commitment romantic encounters, as these limited the risk of long-term costs associated with a committed relationship (Hughes and Samuels, 2021).

The behaviour associated with Dark Tetrad traits did not just impact direct, physical relationships, but also made its way into the online space. This was most clearly seen through the process of trolling (see Figure 1). An internet ‘troll’ is someone who causes deliberate conflict online. Trolling behaviours are malevolent and cause distress to victims. March et al (2017), explored trolling and what motivated those with Dark Tetrad personality types. In this study, sadism and psychopathy were significantly related to trolling behaviours. Sadists and psychopaths were motivated by the thrill from causing pain, taunting, and humiliating others online (March et al, 2017).

Dark Tetrad traits are closely linked to leadership positions and positive work performance. Although possessing these traits may help an individual to get ahead, they may not necessarily get along with their colleagues and can be seen as toxic leaders or bullies (Furnham et al, 2016). Eventually, most people with these traits fail to progress further, as they lack the support mechanisms and networks necessary for further achievement.

Conclusion
This chapter analysed the Dark Tetrad and the four traits, narcissism, psychopathy machiavellianism, and sadism, which comprise it. These four traits were then analysed in the context of the Big 5 and HEXACO models, with Dark Tetrad traits corresponding to lower agreeableness and honesty-humility. The Dark Tetrad has practical consequences in social environments, including the workplace, schools, universities and online. These sections thus described each of the traits of the Dark Tetrad, and highlighted how they influenced the common models used to describe the key psychological aspects of one’s personality.

Following this, the Dark tetrad was analysed in conjunction with three key psychological theories. These were SDT, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and SET. These theories, which highlight how people see the world and interact with their environment, were each adversely impacted by people with Dark Tetrad traits. As such, the Dark Tetrad was found to have significant impacts which flowed beyond the mentality of people, and infected the key social interactions people had with one-another. In doing so, this highlighted that the Dark Tetrad remains a significant theory in psychology which can be applied to a diverse series of established theories.