Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Ecopsychology and stress

Overview
In a world filled with ongoing conflict, poverty, and climate driven extreme weather events, oftentimes many aspects of our lives can feel out of our control. During the 21st century there has been an increase in levels of stress and anxiety, fuelled notably by factors such as social disconnect (Cornwell & Waite, 2009), a prevailing culture of overworking (Wong et al., 2019), and an increase of urbanised environments (Srivastava, 2009). Consequently, there has been a worldwide surge in the overprescription and over-reliance of pharmaceutical medication (ABS, 2011; Smith, 2016).

Ecopsychology posits that a significant portion of psychological distress can also be attributed to our detachment from nature and our role in its degradation (Thoma et al., 2021). In an attempt to combat these stressors, ecopsychology recognises the profound emotional ties that humans have with the natural world and seeks to utilise its healing properties to manage stress levels. This chapter addresses how ecopsychology explains why people feel stressed and how exposure to natural environments can reduce the effects of stress.


 * 1) How can ecopsychology explain stress?
 * 2) How can ecopsychology help us deal with stress?

What is ecopsychology?
Humans have always been able to find solace in one unwavering sanctuary; nature. Ecopsychology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology and psychology that explores the effects of the natural world on human wellbeing (Mayer et al., 2009). Drawing inspiration from Indigenous and ancient knowledge on the connections between humans and nature, and combing it with contemporary scientific research, ecopsychology is able to provide a more holistic approach to addressing modern day stressors (Mazzocchi, 2020).


 * Recent studies explore the physiological reaction that people have when spending more time in natural environments (Heerwagen, 1990; Parsons et al., 1998; Ulrich et al., 1991). There is now growing empirical evidence indicating that merely being present in a natural setting can reduce stress, facilitate quicker emotional recovery, and enhance emotions such as happiness and calm (Berto, 2005; Kaplan, 1992; Mayer et al., 2009).
 * This research is a huge step forward for ecopsychology, as the psychological benefits from connecting with nature has long been associated with spirituality rather physiology (Feral, 1998; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Wells & Evans, 2003).
 * Understanding the biological underpinnings of how exposure to natural settings can reduce stress, enables us to utilise nature as an affordable, and accessible approach to stress management. It also allows us to develop preventative approaches to stress where possible and develop and coping mechanisms in more challenging times.
 * Spending time in a natural setting could be as simple as having access to a scenic view from your window, a room filled with plants, or a walk in the park.

The concept of ecopsychology was popularised by American academic Theodore Roszak in his 1995 publication, The Voice of the Earth, where he drew parallels between individual emotional struggles and the Western industrialised perspective on nature. He believed that nurturing our relationship with the natural world could heal the world at an individual and global scale (Roszak, 1995).

Indigenous Australians: connection to country and wellbeing

 * Indigenous Australian practices, cultivated over generations offer invaluable insights into holistic wellbeing and stress management. For many Indigenous Australians, "Country", represents a profound bond with ancestral landscapes, including the land, air, and water (Lyver et al., 2017). This relationship, enriched by spiritual, social, and cultural dimensions is a stark contrast to Western perspectives, which often segregates the role of nature and wellbeing. For many Indigenous communities, relationship with Country is foundational to their identity and mental health and detachment from this environment can lead to cultural erosion and emotional distress (Kinglsey et al., 2013; Prout et al., 2017).


 * It is crucial to acknowledge that ecopsychology's foundations frequently draw inspiration from Indigenous communities and religious practices from across the globe that have evolved over millennia (Kinglsey et al., 2013). These traditions often offer holistic and integrated approaches to mental wellbeing. By drawing inspiration from these practices, we can bridge the gaps left by Western paradigms and path the way for a more natural mental health care system emphasising interconnectedness, harmony with nature, and community-centred healing.

Understanding stress


In order to understand the relationship between ecopsychology and stress, it is essential to first understand the concept of stress and its physiological impacts on the human brain and behaviour.

What is stress?
Psychological stress as defined by Schneiderman et al. (2005), is the body's physiological and psychological response to perceived challenges or threats which leads to an activation of the fight, flight, or freeze response. While stress serves as an adaptive mechanism that enables us to handle potentially threatening situations, prolonged exposure to stress be detrimental to our cognitive, behavioural functioning, and overall wellbeing (Schneiderman et al., 2005; Mariotti, 2015). Types of stress can be broadly categorised into:


 * acute stress and
 * chronic stress.

Stress and the brain
When we experience stress, there are two immediate physiological reactions activated by our Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) to prepare the body to either confront or flee from a threat:


 * The immediate reaction of the fight or flight response is triggered by the release of the neurotransmitters and hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine. These increase body's heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate (McEwan, 2017).
 * The hypothalamus is stimulated, causing the adrenal cortex to produce another stress hormone; cortisol. This increases the production of glucose in the bloodstream which provides us with a boost of energy and suppresses non-essential functions such as digestion (McEwan, 2017).

How does stress affect us?

 * Both acute and chronic stress can have profound impacts on our cognitive, emotional, and behavioural functioning (Mariotti, 2015). If left unaddressed, the ongoing effects of stress can reach beyond the individual, and begin to impact interpersonal relationships, work productivity, and the broader community (Schneiderman et al., 2005).
 * Responses to stress vary amongst people and situations based on factors such as personal history, personality traits, coping resources, stressor intensity, and individual cognition. Chronic stress can be especially debilitating for the elderly or those with health concerns (Crum et al, 2013).

How does ecopsychology explain stress?
Ecopsychology believes that humans share an inherent connection with nature that compels us to seek comfort in natural settings, when this connection is disrupted, we may experience heightened stress and other mental health challenges (Feral, 1998; Scull, 2008). Modern life, with its rapid urbanisation, technological advancements, and movement away from nature, has resulted in what is described as a nature deficit disorder, which explains how this estrangement from the natural world can manifest as increased stress, feelings of isolation, and anxiety (Warber et al., 2015). Ecopsychology broadly recognises five mechanisms through which nature can affect human wellbeing (Kaplan, 1992; Mayer et al., 2009):


 * 1) encouragement to exercise,
 * 2) facilitating social contact,
 * 3) encouraging optimal development in children,
 * 4) providing opportunities for personal development and a sense of purpose
 * 5) recovery from stress and attention fatigue

Attention restoration theory
One of the most researched mechanisms of ecopsychology is Attention Restoration Theory (ART) (Mayer et al., 2009). This theory suggests that natural environments have a unique ability to increase our cognitive ability by refreshing our mental energy and focus.
 * In order for us to concentrate, our brains are constantly filtering out distracting stimuli, both from our environment (e.g., noises, smells) and internally (e.g., thoughts, memories) (Plebanek & Sloutsky, 2019).
 * Kaplan & Kaplan (1989) believe that our urban world is filled with unlimited tasks that require continuous attention (referred to as hard fascination), and over time the filtering of the external stimuli becomes more difficult, leading to inevitable cognitive fatigue.
 * They contrasted this "hard fascination" of the urban world with the "soft fascination" provided by nature. Here, nature grabs our attention gently, allowing our cognitive filters to relax and recover (Kaplan & Kaplan,1989). Interactions with nature is therefore thought to enhance our attention, whether we are in vast landscapes such as forests and mountains or smaller green spaces such as local parks and playgrounds (Kuo et al., 2004).
 * Key elements of restorative environments include:
 * Being away: the sensation of escaping the daily grind.
 * Extent: feeling a sense of belonging in our environment.
 * Soft fascination: the involuntary attention to nature.
 * Compatibility: environments that resonate with individual preferences.

A study conducted on Australian university students found that students who were told to gaze at a rooftop filled with greenery and flower during 40-second break students, had increased attention compared to students who were told to observe a bare concrete rooftop (Lee et al., 2015).

Various research methodologies, ranging from smaller experiments to expansive longitudinal studies, have highlighted the benefits of natural exposure. The positive impacts of nature on the concentration of students have been documented across diverse settings: children and young adults of varying ages (Hartig et al., 2003), children from varying socio-economic backgrounds (Faber Taylor et al., 2009; Martensson et al., 2009), and neurodiverse children (Kuo et al., 2004).



Siobhan and Lucca are both third year psychology students entering their final exam season. They are both starting to feel elevated levels of stress and anxiety. They decide to take regular 15-minute study breaks, during their breaks:
 * Lucca: Goes for a walk outside and sits under a tree.
 * Siobhan: Stays inside, scrolls on her phone, and walks to the bathroom.

Who is likely to feel more stressed at the end of the day?


 * type=""}

 {Who is likely to feel more stressed at the end of the day? + Siobhan - Lucca
 * type=""}

{Who is likely to concentrate better after the break? - Siobhan + Lucca
 * type=""}

Stress reduction theory

 * Stress Reduction Theory (SRT), introduced by Ulrich et al. (1991) suggests that certain environments can significantly influence our stress levels, suggesting that exposure to natural settings tends to alleviate feelings of stress, while urban or artificial settings might intensify it (Alvarsson et al., 2010; Ulrich et al., 1991). This theory is rooted in our evolutionary history where landscapes rich in vegetation, water, and with a modest complexity offered our ancestors essential resources and a vantage point to anticipate potential threats (Hartig et al., 2003). Such environments naturally induce calmness, lower arousal, and diminish negative thoughts, collectively acting as a counter to stress (Huang et al., 2021).
 * Recent studies exploring the role of nature and wellbeing have found that, urban green spaces, such as parks or tree-lined streets, have consistently been associated with tangible health benefits: reduced blood pressure, decreased levels cortisol, and reported feelings of reduced stress (Cornwell & Waite 2009; Owens and Brune, 2022). Huang et al. (2021) explored the potential of urban green spaces in low-density residential areas and found that green spaces lead to reductions in both self-reported and physiological stress indicators in the younger demographics.

Case study 2: walk in the park
 * Joey works in the finance team at his department. Leading up to the budget season, Joey has been working 12-hour days and has hardly left his desk. Joey's boss notices that he has been more anxious, frustrated, and distracted. Joey's boss told him to start going for walks at lunch and take regular breaks outside.

Eco-anxiety

 * Eco-anxiety is a specific kind of stress related to environmental deterioration and captures the psychological distress stemming from a heightened awareness of environmental issues such as climate change, ecological degradation, and other looming environmental crises (Pihkala, 2018).
 * As people grapple with the growing evidence of human-caused environmental damage, feelings of powerlessness, sadness, fear, and even hopelessness have been rising (Dodds, 2021). In a sense, eco-anxiety bridges the gap between personal wellbeing and the health of our planet.

How does ecopsychology help deal with stress?
To manage stress, ecopsychology applies the principles of ecotherapy, positing that engaging in activities within the natural environment can strengthen our bond with nature, in turn, reducing symptoms of stress and promoting well-being (Owens & Brune, 2022; Summers & Vivian, 2018).

Eco-therapeutic interventions can be:
 * Individual or group based
 * guided by a therapist or self-directed
 * held in diverse locations, including offices, schools, or outdoors.

Nature-based mindfulness-based interventions

 * Mindfulness is defined as paying attention to something with purpose, being present, and being non-judgmental (Vitagliano, 2023)
 * Over the last decade, there has been a growing interest to incorporate mindfulness practices into nature-based interventions, since mindfulness is often used to promote self-awareness and emotional regulation to reduce stress (Jimenez et al., 2021; Vitagliano, 2023).
 * Studies have found that the following MBIs help with managing stress:
 * Forest bathing, wilderness therapy, meditation in nature (Furuyashiki et al., 2019; Owens & Brune 2022; Djernis et al., 2023),
 * Physical activities in nature: activities like walking, jogging, or yoga.

Horticultural therapy

 * Horticultural therapy involves engaging with nature to promote wellbeing. Defined as purposeful interaction with plants and the natural environment, horticulture has been used as a technique in stress management for centuries (Chalquist, 2009).
 * Studies suggest that specific horticultural therapies contribute positively to psychological wellbeing:
 * gardening with an emphasis on fruits, vegetables, and herbs,
 * natural arts and crafts and
 * greenhouse programs.

Other ecotherapy activities

 * Animal-assisted therapy: Interactions with animals, such as petting a dogs and other pets, have shown to decrease aggressive or agitated tendencies in certain individuals (Beetz et al., 2012).
 * Conservation activities: Contributing to environmental preservation can instil feelings of purpose, community, and enhanced mood (Doell et al., 2021).

How does ecotherapy work?
The effectiveness of ecopsychology in managing stress can be understood by the interconnected cognitive, behavioural, and physiological aspects of stress (Jimenez, et al., 2021).


 * Personal control theories
 * Personal control and mastery: taking the time to be mindful and present enables us to regain a sense of personal control. This interaction combats sensations of helplessness, fostering a renewed confidence our ability to influence and master our tasks and continue to take control of our feelings and behaviours.
 * Self-regulation: engaging with nature encourages us to mirror the tranquillity of our surroundings. This instils a sense of balance, enabling better self-regulation and promoting mindfulness.
 * The effects of ecotherapy interventions can be understood through two lenses:
 * Cognitive/behavioural: engaging with calm, natural surroundings can prompt an individual to mimic this tranquillity. It can lead to regaining a sense of control, self-regulation, and a conscious effort to be present and mindful.
 * Physiological: nature has a tangible impact on brain chemistry, prompting the release of specific neurotransmitters. Being in nature provides just the right amount of stimulation, preventing overwhelming sensations. Additionally, deep breathing practices, common in ecotherapy, regulate parts of the brain responsible for stress response and relaxation.




 * Sam and Kane have just moved down to Batemans Bay to retire after working in the government for over 40 years.
 * They are feeling anxious about the move as this is a fresh start in an unfamiliar environment.
 * They are looking for strategies to manage their stress inside and outside of their new home.

Choose the correct answers and click "Submit":
 * What ecotherapy techniques should Sam and Kane use to reduce their stress levels?}


 * type=""}

+ Start gardening + Go for walks along the beach - Go to the movies + Have plants in their living room + Have plenty of places to sit outside

Conclusion
So how does ecopsychology explain stress?
 * ART and SRT explain that humans are naturally drawn to the environment and when we lack exposure to natural settings can cause feelings of stress, anxiety.
 * ART claims that the urban world is saturated with overstimulation, causing us to be more distracted and unable to concentrate. The calming property of nature is therefore able to bring us back down to earth.

How does ecopsychology help deal with stress?
 * Spending time outside allows us to be more mindful and present in our minds and behaviours. Combining calming activities and natural environments the production of stress hormones, allowing us to feel calm.

The undeniable connection between humans and the natural world is more than just a poetic sentiment; it is supported strongly by empirical evidence that highlights the impact of nature immersion, or lack thereof, on our psychological wellbeing. Ecopsychology offers a comprehensive approach that can be embedded across different aspects of our society. On a micro scale, individuals can cultivate habits of regular nature exposure, be it a daily walk in a park or cultivating green spaces in homes. On a macro level, the principles of ecopsychology can guide educational curriculums to foster greater nature appreciation, shape public policies that prioritise green urban planning, and become the cornerstone for community initiatives promoting mental wellbeing.