Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting 2

Overview


Imagine ... the future moment of buying a new car when making monetary choices or of an upcoming meal when being tempted by readily available snacks.

Episodic future thinking (EFT) and delay discounting (DD) encompass concepts associated with human decision-making and cognitive processes, particularly with regard to how individuals navigate choices involving time and outcomes (Guo et al. 2022). Despite their distinct nature, these concepts are frequently studied in conjunction due to their interlinked role in comprehending how people measure immediate versus future rewards (Guo et al. 2022).

Balancing present and future perspectives involves understanding two critical cognitive processes: EFT and DD. EFT enables individuals to construct potential future scenarios using past experiences and current knowledge, while DD leads to valuing immediate rewards over delayed rewards. Recognising the exchange between these processes helps us to understand how people navigate the trade-off between immediate gratification and long-term benefits.

These cognitive mechanisms have significant implications for decision biases and impulsivity. EFT supports long-term planning, goal setting, and considering future consequences, while DD tends to drive impulsive choices by prioritising instant rewards. Understanding this interaction sheds light on the origins of impulsive actions and suboptimal decision-making.

Exploring the neural processes associated with EFT and DD is crucial. EFT activates the prefrontal cortex and involves vivid mental simulations of future events, while DD is linked to brain regions responsible for assessing reward value and impulsivity. Exploring these neural foundations provides insights for developing techniques to improve self-control and improve decision-making capacity.

Practical applications and interventions can be developed through this knowledge. EFT has the potential to reduce DD by vividly envisioning the future outcomes of decisions. Interventions that encourage a forward-thinking focus can effectively manage DD tendencies. These insights have broad implications for addressing addiction, planning, health-related behaviours, and enhancing long-term outcomes across various areas.

This chapter addresses the relationship between EFT and DD. Five focus questions guide this discussion:

Focus questions:
 * What is EFT and what makes it different from other forward thinking methods?
 * How do the different components in EFT collaborate to help people imagine future situations and events?
 * What is DD and how does it affect decision making biases?
 * To what extent do factors such as reward size, length of delay and individual differences affect a person’s tendency to discount future rewards?
 * What are some practical ways to improve EFT and reduce the impact of DD?

Introduction to episodic future thinking and delay discounting
EFT involves mentally simulating future events, allowing individuals to visualise and prepare for upcoming experiences (Bromberg et al., 2015). In contrast, DD relates to the tendency to devalue delayed rewards in favour of immediate ones, emphasising the ongoing conflict between instant gratification and long-term goals (Peters & Büchel, 2010). EFT and DD are mutually dependent cognitive mechanisms that significantly influence decision-making and the pursuit of ones goals (Guo et al, 2022).

What is EFT and what makes it different from other forward thinking methods?
EFT distinguishes itself by its emphasis on detailed and vividly imagined future events, setting it apart from vague, generalised future thoughts (McCue et al., 2019). Additionally, this cognitive process goes beyond contemplation, fostering emotional engagement by eliciting deep emotional involvement with envisioned scenarios. This heightened emotional connection amplifies motivation and significantly influences decision-making, a distinguishing feature when compared to other forms of future-oriented thinking that may lack this vital emotional dimension (McCue et al., 2019).

What is DD and how does it affect decision making biases?
DD is a cognitive phenomenon that significantly influences decision-making biases, including temporal bias and impulsivity. Temporal bias refers to the tendency for individuals to prioritise immediate rewards over larger, delayed ones, due to biases toward immediate gratification (Peters & Büchel, 2010). This means that people often opt for instant gratification rather than waiting for more significant future rewards (Peters & Büchel, 2010). Impulsivity, on the other hand, involves making quick decisions without fully considering long-term consequences. These cognitive biases are closely linked to DD (Guo et al. 2022). The collective impact of DD, temporal bias, and impulsivity can distort decision-making, potentially leading individuals to make decisions that may not be in their best long-term interests.

Characteristics of EFT
EFT encompasses distinct characteristics that set it apart as a cognitive process. EFT facilitates a cognitive temporal journey, allowing individuals to shift their thoughts towards the future, where they construct detailed scenarios and emotional connections (Bromberg et al.,2017). This mental exercise is demonstrated by vivid experiences, as EFT encourages the use of elaborate mental imagery, amplifying the emotional involvement with envisioned future events (Bromberg et al.,2017). EFT often ties these future scenarios to an individual's personal goals, enhancing both motivation and strategic planning (Bromberg et al.,2017). These characteristics collectively make EFT a powerful tool for mental time travel, emotional involvement, and goal-oriented thinking.

Characteristics of DD
DD demonstrates distinct characteristics that influence decision making processes. The first temporal bias was previously explained (Peters & Büchel, 2010; Bromberg et al.,2017). Additionally, DD is characterised by temporal fluctuation, where individuals demonstrate inconsistency in assigning value to rewards across different time durations, further complicating decision-making processes (Peters & Büchel, 2010). These innate biases within DD can result in impulsive decision-making, potentially hindering the fulfilment of long-term goals as individuals prioritise instant gratification over more substantial, delayed rewards.

Significance of studying their relationship
The relationship between EFT and DD holds significant importance on several fronts. Firstly, it sheds light on decision biases by revealing the interconnection between EFT and DD, contributing to our understanding of impulsive decision-making processes (Peters & Büchel, 2011). Secondly, understanding how to balance EFT and DD is crucial for skilful long-term strategising and goal fulfilment, as it aids individuals in making decisions that align with their goals (Peters & Büchel, 2011). Lastly, understanding how EFT and DD interact benefits the development of interventions aimed at promoting more rational decision-making, offering valuable insights into designing methods that encourage individuals towards making sound decisions in various aspects of life.

Cognitive processes and brain regions involved


Cognitive processes and the brain regions involved in decision-making are intricately connected, as shown in Figure 2. The prefrontal cortex plays a pivotal role in regulating various cognitive functions, including planning, impulse control, and decision-making, helping individuals make thoughtful and rational decisions (Peters & Büchel, 2010). The hippocampus, on the other hand, supports the formation of episodic memories and supports the simulation of future events, which is particularly relevant in EFT (Peters & Büchel, 2010). Additionally, striatal areas are associated with reward processing and immediate gratification, influencing choices driven by DD (Peters & Büchel, 2010). Understanding how these brain regions interact with cognitive processes provides valuable insights into the neural mechanisms underlying decision-making.

{Which brain region is primarily responsible for regulating cognitive functions like planning, impulse control, and decision-making? - Hippocampus - Striatal areas + Prefrontal cortex
 * type=""}

{Which brain region is closely associated with EFT? - Amygdala + Hippocampus - Cerebellum - Medulla Oblongata
 * type=""}

{The hippocampus is involved in supporting the formation of ________________. - Long-term memories + Episodic memories - Immediate gratification
 * type=""}

{Which brain regions are associated with reward processing and influencing choices driven by immediate gratification? - Prefrontal cortex + Striatal areas - Hippocampus
 * type=""}

Understanding EFT: processes and mechanisms


EFT is a cognitive process characterised by several key mechanisms. First and foremost, EFT involves cognitive projection, where individuals build and manipulate mental representations of future scenarios (Guo et al, 2022). Additionally, EFT enhances prospective encoding, refining how future events are encoded into an individual's memory (Guo et al, 2022). This mechanism helps individuals anticipate and remember future experiences more effectively. Another crucial aspect of EFT is self-continuity, which involves forging connections between one's past, present, and future selves (Guo et al, 2022; Shacter et al., 2018). This interconnectedness nurtures motivation and aligns one's goals (Guo et al, 2022; Shacter et al., 2018). Understanding these processes and mechanisms sheds light on how EFT plays a significant role in shaping our thoughts, actions, and goals.

How do the different componments in EFT collaborate to help people imagine future situations and events?
The collaborative cooperation of various components within EFT contributes significantly to the capacity of individuals to envision future scenarios and events. Event reconstruction, which involves the ability to reconstruct previous events, plays a pivotal role in mentally constructing future scenarios by employing similar cognitive mechanisms (Madore et al, 2016). Temporal contextualisation, facilitates the association of events with a temporal sequence, providing coherence and context for visualising future events (Madore et al, 2016). Furthermore, emotional integration within these future scenarios amplifies their authenticity and motivational impact. Event specificity ensures that future events are represented in detail, while considering their temporal context, further enhancing coherence (Madore et al, 2016). Finally, the emotional valence of envisioned events not only influences motivation but is also beneficial in strategic planning, collectively shaping the complex process of visualising and preparing for the future (Madore et al, 2016; Lin Epstein 2014).

Neural underpinnings of EFT
The neural underpinnings of EFT reveal a complex interaction of brain networks. One crucial component is the intrinsic network, which becomes engaged during EFT and assists in processes related to autobiographical memory and envisioning future events (Peters & Büchel 2010). Another integral network involved is the frontoparietal network, which is associated with cognitive management and contributes significantly to the construction of future scenarios (Peters & Büchel 2010). These networks work collaboratively to facilitate our ability to imagine and plan for the future. Additionally, memory systems play a fundamental role, with the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe serving as key players in the retrieval and projection of episodic memories (Guo et al, 2022; Bromberg et al.,2017).

Cognitive functions supported by EFT
EFT serves as a cognitive tool that supports various essential functions of the mind. Firstly, it facilitates goal setting by enabling individuals to visualise and plan for long-term and future goals (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Secondly, EFT contributes to the practice of delayed gratification, as it allows individuals to project the delayed consequences of their actions, thereby reducing impulsivity and promoting more thoughtful decision-making (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Lastly, EFT emphasises problem-solving capabilities by providing mental practice opportunities that intensify strategic planning (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). EFT supports and enhances numerous cognitive functions crucial for effective decision-making and goal achievement.

Role in long-term planning and goal-setting
EFT plays a pivotal role in long-term planning and goal setting, offering a multifaceted approach to achieving desired outcomes. Motivation alignment is a significant aspect of this role, as EFT bridges the gap between current actions and desired future results (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Additionally, EFT facilitates temporal extension, allowing individuals to extend their focus beyond immediate rewards and gratification, thereby supporting the foundation of effective long-term planning (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). Furthermore, EFT promotes behavioural consistency by encouraging individuals to maintain steady and purposeful behaviours that are in line with their future goals and objectives (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015). EFT serves as a valuable cognitive tool that aids individuals in navigating the complexities of long-term planning and goal setting by aligning motivations, extending temporal horizons, and prmoting consistent, goal-directed behaviour (Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau 2015).

Exploring DD: Biases and influences
When exploring the phenomenon of DD and its inherent biases and influences, several key factors come into play. Temporal discounting reveals that individuals tend to subjectively assign a higher value to immediate rewards compared to postponed ones (van et al, 2013). This preference for immediate gratification often shapes decision-making processes. Additionally, magnitude sensitivity plays a significant role, as more substantial rewards experience a less pronounced devaluation over time compared to smaller ones (van et al, 2013). These findings provide a clearer understanding of how time and the size of rewards interact in the cognitive processes involved in DD.

Factors affecting DD
The extent to which individuals discount future rewards is influenced by several key factors, including the size of the reward, the length of the delay, and individual differences. When considering these factors, reward scale plays a significant role, as larger rewards tend to undergo less rapid devaluation, highlighting how the size of the reward influences decision-making. The length of the delay also comes into play, as longer waiting periods result in more substantial devaluation, showcasing impatience and affecting the value of postponed rewards. Furthermore, individual differences play a crucial role, with varying degrees of impulsiveness and self-discipline among individuals impacting their predisposition for DD. The factors of reward size, delay length, and individual characteristics contribute to the complexity of how people assess and discount future rewards and the nature of decision-making processes.



Neurobehavioral underpinnings of DD
The neurobehavioral foundations of DD are closely tied to specific brain circuitry and their functions. Impulsivity, a key aspect of DD, involves the interaction of neural regions such as the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex (van et al, 2013). When individuals seek instant gratification, the ventral striatum becomes active, solidifying its role in processing instant rewards as seen in figure 3 (van et al, 2013). In contrast, self-control and the ability to resist impulsivity are linked to the prefrontal cortex, which helps regulate impulsive behaviour and aids in evaluating the value of postponed rewards (van et al, 2013). These neurobiological insights demonstrate the complex mechanisms underlying DD, offering a deeper understanding of how the brain processes and balances immediate and future rewards in decision-making processes.

Implications for decision-making
Understanding the implications of DD for decision-making is crucial in various contexts. DD can introduce a short-term bias in decision-making, where individuals may tend to favour immediate rewards over more beneficial long-term ones. (Burns et al. 2021). Furthermore, the interaction between EFT and DD can create internal conflicts during the decision-making process, potentially influencing the choices individuals make (Burns et al. 2021). However, there is a silver lining, as behavioural interventions are strategies that are developed to mitigate impulsive decisions and encourage more thoughtful, goal-aligned decisions (Burns et al. 2021). Therefore the importance of recognising and addressing the influence of DD on decision-making processes is recognised as it ultimately leads to more informed and beneficial decision making.

{What is the primary influence on how rewards are discounted over time in DD? + Size of the reward - Individual differences - Length of the delay
 * type=""}

{Which brain region is associated with processing instant rewards and impulsivity in DD? - Prefrontal cortex - Hippocampus + Ventral striatum
 * type=""}

{What aspect of decision-making does the prefrontal cortex help regulate in relation to DD? - Immediate gratification - Individual differences in reward preference + Impulsivity and self-control
 * type=""}

The relationship between EFT and DD


The relationship between EFT and DD demonstrates a complex interaction that significantly influences decision-making processes. EFT plays a pivotal role in rebalancing the equilibrium between immediate and delayed rewards often observed in DD (Raichle 2015). It offers an intervention potential, suggesting that strengthening EFT can effectively mitigate impulsive inclinations, thereby facilitating more considered and goal-aligned decisions (Raichle 2015). This relationship between EFT and DD impacts decision-making, particularly in situations involving temporal aspects, emphasising the multifaceted nature of how these cognitive mechanisms collaboratively influence our choices and behaviour as seen in Figure 4 (Raichle 2015; Shacter et al., 2018).

What are some practical ways to improve EFT and reduce the impact of DD?
There are practical approaches to enhance EFT and mitigate the influence of DD. One method is through mental time travel exercises, which involve individuals in guided mental exercises focused on envisioning future events. This practice has been shown to improve EFT skills (Benoit & Schacter 2015). Another approach is prospective memory training, which helps individuals cultivate their ability to recall and plan for future actions, thus stimulating future-oriented cognition (Benoit & Schacter 2015). Additionally, reward delay framing can be effective by emphasising the long-term advantages of delayed rewards, through reducing the impulsivity often associated with DD (Benoit & Schacter 2015).

Promoting EFT to mitigate DD
Promoting EFT appears as a valuable approach to mitigating the impact of DD on decision-making processes. Behavioural interventions, such as training EFT skills, have been shown to enhance future-oriented thinking (Raichle 2015). Cognitive strategies, such as fostering mental time travel, help in valuing delayed rewards and encourage individuals to consider long-term benefits (Raichle 2015). Taking a holistic approach by combining EFT-focused interventions with DD reduction strategies has also proven to be effective in addressing impulsive decision-making tendencies (Raichle 2015). These multifaceted approaches emphasise the potential of EFT as a tool for promoting more thoughtful and goal-aligned choices while minimising the influence of DD.

Key research
Empirical evidence has consistently highlighted the intricate relationship between EFT and DD. Behavioural studies have demonstrated a clear connection, indicating that individuals with higher proficiency in EFT tend to exhibit reduced levels of DD (Guo et al, 2022). Neuroimaging studies have further verified this link by revealing shared neural pathways involved in the interaction between EFT and DD (Guo et al, 2022). Additionally, intervention studies have shown that DD biases can be diminished by developing skills in EFT (Guo et al, 2022). These empirical findings collectively highlight the significance of EFT in understanding and potentially mitigating the impact of DD on decision-making processes.



Key research findings have emphasised the complex relationship between EFT and DD. It is theorised that EFT functions work to decrease DD by stimulating the cognitive representation of delayed rewards, making them more prominent and vivid, thereby facilitating their accessibility (Peters & Büchel, 2010; Benoit et al., 2011). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have pinpointed the neural processes underlying EFT, predominantly within the medial temporal lobe (MTL), including the hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex, as well as areas such as the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), posterior cingulate cortex, and lateral temporal and parietal regions linked to the default mode network as shown in Figure 6 (Benoit and Schacter, 2015; Raichle, 2015; Stawarczyk and D'Argembeau, 2015; Schacter et al., 2017). The hippocampus' role is particularly important in constructing detailed and vivid future events (van Mulukom et al., 2013; Szpunar et al., 2014; Madore et al., 2016), a connection supported by recent voxel-based morphometry (VBM) studies linking grey matter volume in the hippocampus to the level of detail and vividness in EFT (Yang et al., 2020). This neural overlap between EFT and the brain regions associated with DD, including the MTL suggests a liekly neural connection between EFT and DD (Peters and Büchel, 2010, 2011; Yang et al., 2020).

Importantly, research suggests that interventions aimed at promoting EFT can have a significant impact on decision-making by reducing DD tendencies (Guo et al. 2022). Encouraging individuals to vividly imagine positive future outcomes resulting from their decisions can lead to more patient and forward-thinking decisions (Guo et al. 2022). These findings collectively emphasise the complex relationship between EFT and DD, offering valuable insights into the neural and cognitive processes underlying these phenomena and their potential role in decision-making and behavioural interventions.

Conclusion
The relationship between EFT and DD plays a pivotal role in influencing how we make decisions. EFT encourages people to visualise and establish a connection with their future goals and aspirations. This, in turn, helps them make choices that are in line with their desired future outcomes and counteracts the proclivity for impulsive decision-making associated with DD. By understanding this connection, we can gain valuable insights into strategies for improving the quality of our decisions, maintaining motivation, and ensuring that our actions align with long-term goals. Ultimately, this approach paves the way for more successful and gratifying future decision making.