Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Episodic memory and planning

Overview


Lisa sat in her favorite coffee shop, sipping her cappuccino as the aroma of freshly baked pastries wafted through the air. The soft jazz music playing in the background brought back a vivid episodic memory from her college days.

In this memory, she was sitting in the same coffee shop with her best friend Mark. They had spent hours looking over textbooks, preparing for an important exam. The laughter, and the late-night caffeine-fueled study sessions were etched in her mind. It was a time when they had dreamed of conquering the world together. The planning aspect in the scenario is implied rather than explicitly stated. After reminiscing about her past with Mark, Lisa's mind likely transitions to the present and her plans for the future. She may be contemplating reaching out to Mark for a reunion, reminiscing about old times, or even exploring the possibility of rekindling their friendship or collaboration.

Episodic memory plays a crucial role in planning by providing the ability to mentally simulate and reconstruct past experiences in a coherent narrative. Episodic memories encompass specific personal experiences, events, and moments that are unique to an individual's life. These memories not only include the main event or experience but also the rich contextual details surrounding them, such as the locations and times of the events. For instance:


 * First Kiss: In addition to remembering the sensation and emotions of the first kiss, episodic memory might recall where and when it happened, who was present, the surroundings, and any other relevant details.
 * First Day of School: Episodic memory would involve remembering the school's location, the time of day, the people you interacted with, your feelings of anticipation or nervousness, and perhaps even specific activities or conversations (see Figure 1.)

The inclusion of these contextual details in episodic memories allows individuals to mentally time-travel back to those moments, re-experiencing them in a more holistic and immersive way (Suddendorf & Corballis, 2007). This is what differentiates episodic memories from general semantic knowledge and contributes to their role in planning, decision-making, and forming a sense of personal identity.

So, what role does episodic memory play in planning?

Organised hunting parties, the development and transportation of tools, technology, and the burying of the dead are examples of complex planning that can be traced back hundreds of thousands of years in human ancestry. The ability to orient towards and make plans with respect to an uncertain but potentially controllable future is a key component of human mental life and the cultural products it generates, including norms, written and material resources, symbolic representation, abstract thought, science, religion, and social complexity.

This chapter focuses on episodic memory and the role it plays in planning, then explains the role of the hippocampus/pre-frontal coretx, and how future thinking affects episodic memory and planning.


 * Focus questions:
 * Episodic memory
 * The role of episodic memory in planning
 * what role does the hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex play in episodic memory and planning?
 * How does future thinking affect episodic memory and planning?

The role of episodic memory in planning
Episodic memory plays a significant role in the planning process by providing a foundation of personal experiences and contextual information that influences our decisions, strategies, and expectations (see Table 1 for an example of a simple table for episodic memories and planning, the table allows you to visually organise and review your episodic memories, making it easier to draw on past experiences for planning, decision-making, and problem-solving in the future)

Contextual recall
Episodic memory allows us to remember specific details about past events, such as where and when they occurred, the people involved, and the emotional context. This contextual information can guide our planning by helping us determine the most suitable time, place, and circumstances for our future actions. Research conducted by Irish and colleagues (2013) highlights the role of contextual recall in planning. Their study found that individuals who could vividly recall contextual details from past events were better at making effective plans for future endeavors.

Episodic memories often include emotional associations linked to past events. These emotions can influence your planning by guiding you toward activities that evoke positive feelings and avoiding those associated with negative emotions. For example, if you remember feeling stressed while planning a large event on your own, you might prioritise delegating tasks to others to reduce stress in future planning. Episodic memories provide details about where events took place. This spatial context is valuable when planning activities. For instance, if you recall that you had a productive study session at the library rather than at home, you might choose to plan your future study sessions at the library to replicate that conductive environment.

Anticipating challenges
When planning, we often draw on our episodic memories to anticipate potential challenges or obstacles based on similar situations we've encountered in the past. Studies on decision-making and planning, such as those by Schacter and colleagues (2012), emphasize the role of episodic memory in anticipating and addressing challenges during the planning process. By recalling how we navigated similar difficulties, we can devise strategies to overcome these challenges in our current plans. When facing a new planning task, you might recognise similarities between the current situation and past events you've encountered. These similarities can range from the type of project, the people involved, the goals, or even the general context. Anticipating challenges allows you to proactively implement measures to prevent certain issues from arising. For example, if you remember that a lack of clear communication caused problems in a previous project, you can plan to establish regular communication channels from the outset. Drawing on past experiences and your ability to overcome challenges can boost your confidence in your planning efforts. This confidence can translate into more decisive decision-making and a greater sense of control over the planning process.

Decision making


Episodic memories provide us with a database of past experiences, outcomes, and lessons learned. When making decisions related to our plans, we may refer to these memories to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of different options, ultimately leading to more informed and thoughtful choices. Research on decision-making, such as studies by Murty and colleagues (2016), highlights how episodic memory influences our choices by providing a repository of past experiences to draw from. When making decisions related to our plans, we may refer to these memories to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of different options, ultimately leading to more informed and thoughtful choices. Memories of both successful and unsuccessful past decisions offer insights into what worked and what didn't. These lessons learned can guide your decision-making process by influencing your preferences for certain options and highlighting pitfalls to avoid. Episodic memory enables you to assess risks associated with different choices. By recalling instances where risks led to negative outcomes or where caution resulted in success, you can make more calculated decisions that consider potential risks and their implications. Emotions associated with past experiences stored in episodic memory can impact your decision-making process. Positive emotions might steer you toward choices that align with past successes, while negative emotions might encourage you to avoid situations that led to unfavorable outcomes (see Figure 2).

Emotional guidance
Episodic memories are intertwined with emotions experienced during past events. The emotional associations stored in these memories can influence our planning by guiding us toward activities, goals, and decisions that align with positive emotions and away from those tied to negative experiences (Phelps et al., 2004). Episodic memories linked to positive emotions, such as happiness, satisfaction, and accomplishment, can guide us toward activities and goals that evoke similar positive feelings. When planning, we are more likely to prioritise tasks and goals that align with these positive emotional associations.Memories of past successes and the positive emotions they elicited can serve as motivation for planning and pursuing similar endeavors in the future. The memory of achieving a fitness goal, for instance, can encourage you to plan new health-related activities.Emotionally charged memories often highlight experiences that held personal significance. When planning, we might be drawn to goals and activities that have the potential to evoke strong emotional reactions and create meaningful experiences.

Prospective memory
Prospective memory involves remembering to perform planned actions in the future (McDaniel et al., 2007). Episodic memory contributes to this process by allowing us to mentally simulate future scenarios and visualise the execution of our planned actions, increasing the likelihood that we remember and carry them out. Episodic memory enables us to mentally rehearse and visualise the steps required to carry out planned actions. This mental rehearsal enhances our readiness and confidence when the time comes to execute the plans.When planning, episodic memories provide contextual information that can trigger reminders. For example, recalling that you need to purchase groceries during your commute home can prompt you to remember and execute the task when you pass by a grocery store.Episodic memories help us create connections between specific events and the planned actions associated with them. When encountering triggers (events, cues), we can recall the planned action linked to them due to these memory associations.

Role of the hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex in episodic memory and planning
The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are two critical brain regions that play significant roles in both episodic memory and planning. These brain regions are interconnected and contribute to various aspects of these cognitive processes (see Figure 4).

Hippocampus



 * 1) Episodic Memory: The hippocampus is involved in the initial consolidation of episodic memories, a process that stabilises and strengthens memory traces. Over time, some aspects of memory may become less reliant on the hippocampus and more dependent on neocortical regions (squire et al., 2015). The process of memory consolidation involves multiple stages, and the hippocampus is primarily associated with the early stages of consolidation, specifically the initial encoding and consolidation of memories. As memories become more established over time, they undergo a process of systems consolidation, during which they gradually become less reliant on the hippocampus and more dependent on neocortical regions for long-term storage. During an experience, it helps transform short-term memories into long-term memories, making them available for retrieval in the future. The hippocampus plays a prominent role in encoding and retrieving spatial and contextual details associated with episodic memories. It helps answer questions like "where" and "when" an event occurred. It assists in pattern separation, which is the process of distinguishing between similar memories or events. This ensures that similar experiences are stored as distinct memories.
 * 2) Planning: The hippocampus is involved in constructing mental scenes that involve imagining oneself in different contexts and scenarios. This ability to simulate future events relies on the same neural mechanisms used for recalling past experiences (Addis et al., 2012). This phenomenon underlines the idea that our ability to imagine the future is intricately tied to our capacity to remember the past. It's as if the brain uses the "building blocks" of past experiences to construct new scenarios for the future. The hippocampus helps establish the temporal context of events, which is essential for planning and sequencing actions in the correct order. It contributes to understanding the temporal relationships between past experiences and future plans (Davachi et al., 2015).The hippocampus helps encode and store the order in which events occur, allowing us to remember the sequence of actions and experiences. This is essential for planning and executing tasks in the correct order, as well as for understanding the temporal relationships between different elements of an event or experience.

Episodic Memory
While the hippocampus is involved in the initial encoding of episodic memories, the prefrontal cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), plays a role in the retrieval and organization of memories. It helps with accessing stored memories and organizing them for retrieval. The prefrontal cortex is involved in source monitoring, allowing individuals to attribute memories to their correct source or context. It helps individuals remember where they learned or experienced specific information. In addition to retrieval, the prefrontal cortex contributes to the organization and integration of memories. It helps individuals structure their memories in a coherent and meaningful way (Preston et al., 2013). This is particularly important for creating narratives or mental timelines of past events. One of the critical functions of the prefrontal cortex in episodic memory is source monitoring. It allows individuals to attribute memories to their correct source or context. For example, it helps individuals remember where they learned or experienced specific information, whether it was from a book, a conversation, or personal experience.

Planning
The prefrontal cortex, including the DLPFC, is crucial for executive functions such as decision-making, working memory, goal setting, and inhibitory control. These functions are essential for planning, as they allow individuals to set goals, generate strategies, and make decisions based on rational deliberation. It helps maintain and update goals during the planning process, ensuring that individuals stay focused on their objectives and adapt their plans as needed (Tang et al., 2018). When planning involves switching between different tasks or goals, the prefrontal cortex plays a role in task switching, allowing individuals to shift their attention and resources appropriately. Inhibitory control, or the ability to suppress irrelevant or distracting information, is crucial for maintaining focus during planning. The prefrontal cortex assists in inhibitory control, ensuring that individuals stay on track with their plans.

Interplay between hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
These two brain regions do not operate in isolation but interact extensively. During episodic memory recall, the prefrontal cortex helps retrieve and organize memories, while the hippocampus contributes by providing spatial and contextual details (Dickerson et al., 2010).In planning, the hippocampus aids in scene construction and prospective thinking, drawing on past experiences, while the prefrontal cortex is instrumental in executive functions, goal maintenance, and decision-making.The interaction between the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus is essential for creating a coherent memory retrieval process. While the prefrontal cortex retrieves and organizes memories, the hippocampus ensures that these memories are integrated into their proper spatial and contextual contexts.The interplay between the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex is critical during planning. The hippocampus provides the raw material in the form of past experiences and memories, while the prefrontal cortex processes this information through executive functions. The prefrontal cortex evaluates the relevance of past experiences, sets goals based on them, and formulates plans to achieve those goals.

How does future thinking play a role in episodic memory and planning
In humans episodic memory is neuropsychologically closely related to the ability to plan for a personal future. This connection is often referred to as the "temporal context model." When we remember past events, we use the same mental processes to simulate future events. The ability to relive past experiences helps us construct mental simulations of future events. This capacity for mental time travel allows us to anticipate and plan for future situations based on our past experiences (Suddendorf et al., 2009).

For example, if you're planning a trip, you might draw on memories of previous vacations to imagine different aspects of your upcoming journey, such as activities, accommodations, and potential challenges. The ability to simulate future experiences based on past memories is crucial for adaptive decision-making (See case study 1).

Episodic memory: It has been proposed that episodic future thinking depends critically on the episodic memory system, which is thought to underlie an individual’s ability to recollect past personal experiences. When we recall episodic memories, we reconstruct the past by piecing together various details (Tulving et al., 2002). Similarly, when we think about the future, we engage in a similar process of mentally simulating potential events and scenarios. The brain regions and cognitive processes involved in episodic memory overlap with those involved in imagining the future. This connection is often referred to as the "prospective brain," as it allows us to use past experiences to simulate and plan for future scenarios. The ability to imagine potential future events helps us prepare for challenges, make decisions, and set goals based on what we've learned from our past experiences (Cheeke et al., 2019).

Planning: Planning is the process of formulating a strategy or sequence of actions to achieve a goal. Future thinking is a central component of planning because it requires envisioning potential future outcomes and considering the steps needed to reach those outcomes. Effective planning involves mentally simulating different scenarios, evaluating their feasibility, and making decisions based on the anticipated consequences of various actions. Episodic memory also contributes to planning. When planning for the future, we often draw upon our memories of past experiences to inform our decisions. The ability to recall similar situations from the past helps us anticipate challenges, identify potential solutions, and adapt our strategies based on what has worked or not worked previously

Case study 1

Emma is a 25-year-old travel enthusiast who is planning a backpacking trip to Southeast Asia. She's using future thinking, episodic memory, and planning to ensure a successful and memorable journey.

Episodic memory: Emma draws on her episodic memory to recall past travel experiences and adventures. She remembers the excitement of exploring new cultures, the joy of trying local cuisines, and the friendships she made during previous trips.

Planning: Emma uses future thinking, guided by her episodic memory, to plan her travel adventure she uses her past travel expenses as a reference to create a budget for her trip. She allocates funds for accommodations, transportation, activities, and local experiences.

{Episodic memory is primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex of the brain. + True - False
 * type=""}

{The process of planning is solely determined by genetic factors and cannot be influenced by environmental factors or learning. - True + False
 * type=""}

{Planning is a cognitive process that is entirely separate from memory functions and does not involve memory recall. - True + False
 * type=""}

{Episodic memory and semantic memory are the same concepts and can be used interchangeably. - True + False
 * type=""}

Conclusion
Episodic memory serves as a repository of personal experiences, emotions, and contextual information that significantly influences our planning processes. By drawing on past events and their associated details, emotions, and lessons, we can make more informed decisions, anticipate challenges, emotionally engage with our plans, and learn from our own history to create more effective and adaptive plans. It provides the temporal context, relevant information, and mental simulations necessary for effective and adaptive planning processes. The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex work together to support the formation and retrieval of episodic memories and the various cognitive processes involved in planning, ultimately enabling individuals to navigate their past experiences and prepare for future actions. Future thinking is a cognitive process that is intertwined with both episodic memory and planning. Episodic memory allows us to draw on past experiences to imagine future scenarios and make informed decisions, while planning involves envisioning and preparing for future outcomes based on the simulations of potential events. This interconnectedness between past, present, and future thinking is essential for our ability to navigate life's challenges and opportunities.