Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Indigenous Australian mindfulness

Overview
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia consist of hundreds of groups with their own unique sets of languages, beliefs, histories, and cultural traditions and practices (AIATSIS, 2023; AIHW, 2023). Although there are varying estimates for how long Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have lived within Australia, research suggests it is upwards of 60,000 years (AIATSIS, 2023).

Throughout this time, Australian Indigenous peoples have engaged in didgeridoo sound meditation, where playing and listening to the didgeridoo results in a relaxed state of mind (Spirit Gallery, n.d), as well as "deep listening and silent awareness" where one continuously makes themselves aware of where they have come from, why they are here, where they are going, and where they belong (Ungunmerr-Baumann, 2017, see Figure 1). This practice of deep listening is known by many different names depending on location however, in English the closest thing that it can be compared to is contemplation or mindfulness.

Indigenous peoples experience the ongoing effects of colonisation, which has negatively affected them on a social, spiritual, economic, and cultural level as well as negatively affecting their physical and mental health (Smallwood et al., 2021). For example, the rate for suicide of Indigenous Australians is almost twice the rate of non-Indigenous Australians and was the leading cause of death for Indigenous children aged 5–17 in 2020 (ABS 2021; AIHW, 2022). Therefore, for mental health interventions that promote behaviour change to be effective they need to be tailored to the needs of Aboriginal Peoples. This can be done by including the protective factors of cultural identity and connections to country, family, and community (ABS, 2016). However, according to self-determination theory, behaviour change is more effective and lasting when the individual is autonomously motivated (Ng et al., 2012).



Through empirical research it has been shown that participating in mindfulness activities, such as slow deep breathing (Obaya et al., 2023) and paying attention to the present moment with both curiosity and kindness (Bakosh et al., 2016), improves mental health and wellbeing (Zoogman et al., 2015), reduces stress (Obaya et al., 2023; Vago, & Zeidan, 2016) and helps with emotional self-regulation (Hülsheger et al., 2013).

By including the elements of cultural identity, connection to country, family and community into mindfulness practices, as well as promoting these practices as suitable and culturally safe for Indigenous peoples, Indigenous peoples may be more autonomously motivated to engage in these interventions.

Although Indigenous Australians have engaged in mindfulness practices for thousands of years (see Figure 1), such as dadirri and the playing of, and listening to, the digeridoo, the trauma and distress caused by the ongoing effects of colonisation has caused Aboriginal peoples to be further removed from their roots, resulting in the decreased use, and knowledge, of these practices. By engaging in the various forms of mindfulness discussed in this chapter, Indigenous Australians may be able to connect more deeply to self and Country, regardless of where they are, improve their mental and spiritual health (Greeson et al., 2011), and increase their sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, the essential psychological needs for wellbeing according to self-determination theory (see Figure 3).

This chapter addresses the concept of mindfulness and how self-determination theory can be used to explain how mindfulness may be important in supporting highly autonomous motivations before delving into the way mindfulness was, and is, a significant and common occurrence in the lives of the traditional owners of Australia.

Focus questions
 * What is mindfulness?
 * How can self-determination theory be applied to understand how mindfulness can support autonomous motivations?
 * What is dadirri and how is it practiced?
 * What is the didgeridoo and how is it used for mindfulness meditation?
 * What is Wayapa Wuurrk and how is it practiced?
 * What is a yarning circle and how is it combined with mindfulness meditation?

What is mindfulness?
Mindfulness can be thought of as present-moment, non-judgmental awareness (Kabat-Zinn, 2015). By paying attention to what is happening in the current moment in a non-reactive and openhearted way, people can make significant positive changes to their mental health and wellbeing (Obaya et al., 2023; Vago, & Zeidan, 2016; Zoogman et al., 2015; Hülsheger et al., 2013). Although all people have an innate capacity to pay attention, refinement of this ability through regular practice leads to greater awareness, insight, and capacity for sentience (Kabat-Zinn, 2015).

Mindfulness is not simply awareness of external stimuli, or things occurring in the environment, but also internal awareness of your emotions, feelings, and thoughts (see Figure 2). By accepting these external and internal factors, letting them flow through your consciousness without judgement, you can improve your overall wellbeing (Zoogman et al., 2015).

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivational theory that examines how social contexts and individual differences facilitate different types of motivation which, in turn, predicts learning, performance, experience, and psychological health (Deci & Ryan, 2015). According to this theory, in order for people to experience effective functioning and wellness, they need to satisfy the psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2015).

Autonomy refers to the need to feel ownership of one's behaviour (e.g., "I am able to decide what I want to do"), competence refers to the need to produce desired outcomes and to experience mastery (e.g., "I am confident I can do this") and relatedness refers to the need to feel connected to others (e.g., "I feel supported") (Wang et al., 2019, see Figure 3).

Although, SDT researchers focus on social and cultural contexts that enhance or diminish people’s autonomous motivation, they also examine the way in which intrapersonal factors, such as mindfulness, affect self-motivation (Ryan et al., 2021). Using the self-determination theory (SDT) framework, it is possible to identify how mindfulness may play an important role in supporting a person's willingness to engage in an activity (Ryan et al., 2021). This theory states that although mindfulness does not cause motivation, it does contribute to autonomous motivation, as it provides individuals more awareness of internal urges, emotions, impulses, and needs (Ryan et al., 2021). It is through the open, non-judgemental awareness that occurs during mindfulness that individuals can use their interests, values, and priorities to direct their actions and behaviours (Ryan et al., 2021).



Self-determination is a human right recognised by the United Nations and involves the freedom to live according to one's own values and beliefs (Australian Human Rights Commission [AHRC], n.d; Deadly Story, n.d). For Indigenous peoples, this means being able to make decisions that affect Community and being able to practice culture (Deadly Story, n.d).

In 2012, Mick Gooda, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, conducted a survey of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s perspectives on how self-determination could be exercised. It was concluded that self-determination for Indigenous Australian peoples is exercised through the presence of their own representative bodies; through their own schools, justice systems, and health systems; by having control over their own lives; by being able to participate in decisions that affect them; through being subject to their own laws; by establishing their own government; and by establishing their own sovereign state (AHRC, n.d). For many years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have been fighting for treaty as an important way of achieving self-determination (Deadly Story, n.d.) (see Figure 4).

Mindfulness and Indigenous Australian cultures
Aboriginal peoples have orally passed down their stories for generations (Korff, 2023). Therefore, deep and respectful listening and personal reflection has been, and continues to be, a significant capability in Australian Indigenous culture. As Aboriginal writer and senior elder Miriam-Rose Ungunmerr-Baumann (2010, p. ?) stated:

"In our Aboriginal way, we learnt to listen from our earliest days. We could not live good and useful lives unless we listened. This was the normal way for us to learn – not by asking questions. We learnt by watching and listening, waiting and then acting."

Although this deep listening is a sign of respect and a way to learn, it is also a form of mindfulness, a practice that First Nations people have engaged in for many thousands of years as a way of reconnecting with self and Country (Lavrencic et al., 2021). Deep listening has been used as a meditative practice by Aboriginal peoples as a way to quieten the mind, become still and patient, and let things take their natural course (Ungunmerr-Baumann, 2010; Korff, 2023) whilst thinking about the environment and all within it (Lavrencic et al., 2021).

Another method used by Australian Indigenous peoples to quieten the mind and encourage wellbeing is the playing of, and listening to, the didgeridoo. Australian Aboriginal peoples are the first known culture to heal with sound, using the didgeridoo as an instrument for physical and emotional healing for both the player and the listener (Maloka, 2023, see Figure 4) by encouraging mindfulness.

Although Australian Aboriginal peoples have engaged in these various forms of mindfulness for centuries, there continues to be inequalities in Indigenous health status, including emotional, and mental health and wellbeing, where Indigenous populations have poorer health outcomes compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts (Harfield et al, 2018). Furthermore, many Indigenous Australians have become disconnected from their environment, tribe, and spirit (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a).

As self-determination theory (SDT) states, engaging in the present-moment openness of mindfulness allows individuals to become more aware of their emotions and needs, which, in turn, influences their interests, values, and priorities which direct their actions and behaviours (Ryan et al., 2021). Therefore, new mindfulness interventions that incorporate the health factors that are important to Indigenous Australians such as culture, spirituality (competence), Country, connections with community, family and friends (relatedness), respect and autonomy (Lavrencic et al., 2021) are important for improving physical and mental health.

Traditional forms of mindfulness practice, as well as more contemporary forms, that incorporate the psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness as perceived by Indigenous Australians are discussed in the following sections.

Dadirri- deep listening
"Can they bend the knees?"

This expression comes from Central Australia and refers to the ability of sitting and truly listening to the speaker (Korff, 2023). As traditional Aboriginal peoples have orally passed on their stories for thousands of years, deep listening and absorption of information is needed for these stories to be passed on correctly to the next generations. All First Nation peoples have their own word for this deep listening (Korff, 2023). In Ngan'gikurunggurr and Ngen'giwumirri, the languages of the Aboriginal people of the Daly River region, deep listening and reflection is called Dadirri (Korff, 2023).



In 1988, renowned Elder Miriam-Rose Ungunmerr-Baumann brought Dadirri to the attention of the nation commenting that for thousands of years, Aboriginal peoples have lived with the quietness of nature, feeling the presence of the Life-Giving Spirit when "in the bush, among the trees, on a hill or by a billabong" (Ungunmerr-Baumann, 1988, see Figure 4).

Dadirri can be described as being present and connected with yourself and the environment by engaging in both internal and external deep listening and reflection (Ungunmerr-Baumann et al., 2022). It is a holistic practice consisting of elements such as peace, healing, empowerment, and truth-telling, that promotes good health and heals the mind, spirit, and body (Ungunmerr-Baumann et al., 2022). Dadirri is able to produce feelings of autonomy and competence, two of the essential psychological needs outlined in the SDT. Furthermore, Dadirri is reciprocal, respectful, deep listening to others which promotes trust and the sharing of knowledge (Ungunmerr-Baumann et al., 2022) therefore, engaging in dadirri also satisfies the essential psychological need of relatedness (see Figure 3).

 Sit outside and look and listen to the environment around you.

Focus on something; a flower, a cloud, a leaf

Or let something find you; the sound of a bird, the feel of the breeze, the light streaming through the leaves on a tree.

Be still, silent, and listen.

Didgeridoo-led meditation and healing
The Yidaki, or didgeridoo, is a wind instrument (see Figure 5) that produces low frequency and powerful sound vibrations with people commenting that it has a mellow, calming, and meditative sound (Spirit Gallery, 2023) which creates a sense of wellbeing (Spirit Gallery, 2023). It can also help listeners enter deep states of relaxation, where they feel grounded in the moment and become connected to the earth as they engage in mindfulness that naturally accompanies the sound of the didgeridoo (Living Culture, 2023).

The act of playing the didgeridoo encourages deep breathing which leads to a relaxed state of mind (Spirit Gallery, 2023). After a period of time the person is likely to enter a trance-like state, becoming very relaxed yet at the same time very aware, creating feelings of relaxation and increasing positive affect (Spirit Gallery, 2023). Playing the digeridoo also has many physical health benefits such improving both cardiovascular efficiency and lung capacity (Spirit Gallery, 2023) and results in a feeling of accomplishment, or competence, for the player (Spirit Gallery, 2023).



Australian Indigenous cultures have known about the vibrational healing of the didgeridoo (Spirit Gallery, 2023) for at least 40,000 years (Maloka, 2023; see Figure 3) where Aboriginal Elders would play the didgeridoo near individual to help heal broken bones, muscle tears, and to help them regain their health (Spirit Gallery, 2023; Maloka, 2023). Therefore, the use of the didgeridoo has also encouraged relatedness, with people who are unwell being supported by others demonstrating their care and love.

Contemporary science is currently researching the beneficial effects of "vibration on bone, muscle, and hormonal function" (Spirit gallery, 2023) as well as the power of the didgeridoo in treating chronic pain conditions in the form of sound therapy (Spirit Gallery, 2023).

A study examining the effects of sound meditation using didgeridoos as well as singing bowls, crystal singing bowls, gongs, Ting-shas (tiny cymbals), and small bells, showed that individuals reported significantly less tension, anger, fatigue, and depressed mood after participating in the sound meditation session (Goldsby et al., 2017).

A study by Philips et al. (2019) examined the effect of didgeridoo sound meditation on undergraduate students. The study demonstrated that the didgeridoo sound therapy was more effective than silent meditation for relaxation and acute stress, However, it was just as effective as silent meditation for decreasing self-perceived negative arousal (Philips et al., 2019). However, due to the limited studies in this areas, further investigation into didgeridoo and sound meditation is warranted.

 Didgeridoo meditation zone

Wayapa Wuurrk- earth connection
"I believe that we are all Earth people, some are just more disconnected than others. As a Traditional Custodian, it is my responsibility to share my connection to this Country and teach others how to respect and care for it, to heal it and let it heal us. So that is why I created Wayapa® .” (Marloo Thomas, Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023b, para 4)"

In 2014, Jamie Thomas and Sara Jones co-founded Wayapa Wuurrk (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a). In the language of the Maara and Gunaikurnai Peoples, Wayapa Wuurrk means “Connect to the Earth” and is an Indigenous earth and wellness connection practice (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a).

Wayapa is based on ancient Indigenous wisdom that states that to create Earth Mind Body Spirit wellbeing, one must first focus on taking care of the earth (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a). For thousands of years, Australian Aboriginal peoples have lived in harmony with the Earth, creating a symbiotic relationship between themselves and the environment. However, in the 21st century, many people are experiencing a feeling of disconnection from Mother Earth, our planet that sustains us and provides us with everything we need to survive (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023b).

When we become disconnected from the earth, we remove this Connection that sustains us (Wayapa Wuurkk, 2023b). Wayapa has been described as an Australian equivalent of yoga (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023b), or Tai Chi (Kirkbright, 2019), where a series of movements, earth mindfulness, and narrative meditation, encourages reconnection and respect for the land that sustains us while also providing a sense of belonging and holistic wellbeing (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a).

It is about creating a different lifestyle by encouraging people to think about their subjective definitions of health and wellbeing while focusing on Indigenous thinking of ancient earth mindfulness, where human wellness requires a reciprocal relationship with the environment (Wayapa Wuurrk, 2023a).

Engaging in Wayapa informs the participant that taking care of the earth provides a life purpose (autonomy), it provides an understanding of how one fits into their environment and how they belong to it (relatedness) and how they can use earth mindfulness to bring harmony into their life (competence).

 Mindful Earth

Yarning circles and mindfulness
A yarning circle is a group discussion where each member is seated in a circle and at the same height, so that perceptions of power or status difference is minimised (Kirkbright, 2019). Everyone involved in the yarning circle are aware of, or have agreed upon, a set of cultural protocols that result in an open and safe space for sharing of perspectives and knowledge (Kirkbright, 2019).

At the 2019 Koorie Youth Summit for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people living in Victoria, Levi McKenzie Kirkbright, a proud Aboriginal man belonging to the La Perouse Aboriginal community in Botany Bay, facilitated two mindful yarning circles.



He used his knowledge of guided meditation or mindfulness, that he learned via the Headspace guided meditation app. He instructed participants to focus on their breath for a moment to allow their mind to calm. He then asked the participants to focus on a particular question but to frame them in the third-person so that the person is perceived as separate from their internal response (Kirkbright, 2019; see below for example questions). After a period of time, the internal responses to this question are allowed to come to the forefront of our consciousness where we notice them without denying, judging, or criticising (Kirkbright, 2019). This constitutes the mindfulness portion of the practice, where one can have a sense of competence as they are able to control the acceptance of these thoughts and feelings. After this had taken place, Kirkbright invited participants to share their feelings and reflections. Even though this amalgamation of a yarning circle and mindfulness created a highly vulnerable space, Kirkbright found that the reflective discussion was calm, insightful, and considerate where participants shared their personal reflections regarding their lives, cultures, and family (Kirkbright, 2019) creating a sense of relatedness with the other members of the yarning circle. Relatedness, or connecting to country and to others, is an essential value of Aboriginal peoples (Kirkbright, 2019).

This integration of a yarning circle and mindfulness created a safe and supportive environment where each participant was able to contemplate and reflect on their internal states before sharing with the group without fear of judgement, even when their responses were extremely diverse and diverging (Kirkbright, 2019).

Kirkbright states that this integration of mindfulness techniques into a yarning circle provides participants with the opportunity to personally engage the topic before interacting with, and being influenced by, other members of the yarning circle thereby providing participants with a sense of control of autonomy over what they chose to share.


 * Who are you?
 * Who do you want to become?
 * What does “responsibility” mean to you?
 * What is your cultural responsibility?
 * What responsibilities are you ignoring?

Quiz
Choose your answers and click "Submit": {Indigenous Australians have been engaging in mindfulness practices for thousands of years + True - False
 * type=""}

{Mindfulness is about focussing on future goals - True + False
 * type=""}

{By practicing Wayapa Wuurrk, you are mindfully re-connecting with the natural environment + True - False
 * type=""}

{A yarning circle is a great way to assert dominance - True + False
 * type=""}

Conclusion
Mindfulness is being present in the current moment while being non-judgmental to stimuli in the external environment and accepting of internal thoughts and emotions. According to SDT, all human beings require autonomy, competence, and relatedness if they are to function effectively and experience positive wellbeing. Although the majority of studies have only examined how mindfulness can contribute to autonomy, as it encourages awareness of internal urges, emotions, impulses, and needs (Ryan et al., 2021), traditional Indigenous Australian cultures have practiced forms of mindfulness that encompass all three of these needs.

As dadirri can be both an individual or group practice, it can satisfy one's need for both autonomy and relatedness where one can either engage in deep internal or external listening. Furthermore, as it a holistic practice that encourages empowerment, it boosts individuals’ sense of confidence and competence.

Didgeridoo playing also encompasses these three psychological needs. As people have the choice as to whether they wish to play the digeridoo or not means there exists autonomy. If a person decides to play the digeridoo they can experience a feeling of accomplishment bringing with it feelings of competence. And lastly, as the digeridoo has been used to heal others it can be used to satisfy the need for relatedness, where a person can feel loved and accepted.

The more contemporary, blended practices of mindfulness such as Wayapa Wuurrk and yarning circles with mindfulness, also address these three essential needs. Wayapa allows the participant to decide whether they wish to accept the purpose of taking care of the earth thereby granting a sense of autonomy, while also providing the individual with an understanding of how they belong to their environment, resulting in a sense of relatedness, and showing how earth mindfulness can be used to bring about a harmonious life giving a sense of competence. Mindfulness brings with it a sense of competence as the person is able to control their acceptance of their own thoughts and feelings. When the yarning circle element is added, the person now has access to autonomy, where they can share which aspects of their life, if any, they choose to share with the other members of the group, as well as relatedness as people share their thoughts and reflections.

Traditional Australian Indigenous cultures have engaged in mindfulness practices for thousands of years even though they may not have been referred to as "mindfulness". In addition, each of the mindfulness practices discussed have addressed the three psychological needs outlined in SDT: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.