Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Irrational belief motivation

Overview
 Maddie and Alex have met in their first year at university, and have become very close friends. They are currently in their final year, and are enrolled in the same units. They have not seen each other in a while, so they decide to meet after class. Mid-semester exams are stressful for both of them, especially since it is their last year before graduating! However, Maddie knows that she and Alex are good students, and, so far, they have been doing well academically. When discussing their workload, Alex says "I must get high distinctions on all my units this semester, otherwise I am a failure". Alex's words seem harsh and unrealistic to Maddie. Surely, she also cares about receiving good grades this semester, but believing that receiving anything less than a high distinction makes Alex a failure seems illogical and unrealistic to her. Why is Alex feeling this way?



irrationality has been explored since the dawn of ancient philosophy. Most notably, 19th century philosophy tried to paint irrationality as a useful tool to understand the world, considered to be more effective than rational knowledge (Klimets, 2004). However, psychology views irrationality as "the state, condition, or quality of lacking rational thought ... typically used in relation to cognitive behaviour (e.g., thinking, decision making) that is illogical or delusional" (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.). Contrary to what the 19th century philosophers believed, psychological research has established a link between irrational beliefs and distress, as experiencing irrational beliefs can lead individuals to interpret events in a negative and self-defeating way (Bridges & Harnish, 2010).

Studies on various mental disorders have been able to establish that irrational beliefs play a primary role in the development of anxiety and depression (see Figure 1) (Bridges & Harnish, 2010). Understanding the causes of psychological disturbance and helping people feel better has been the rationale behind the development of new forms of therapy, such as Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy - a precursor to today's Cognitive Behavioural therapy (Collard & O'Kelly, 2011; Ellis, 2004). These approaches distinguish themselves from other cognitive-behavioural approaches because they set rational and irrational beliefs at the core of their research (Turner, 2016).

This chapter draws from psychological and sociological theory, as well as research, to understand the characteristics of irrational beliefs, what motivates them and what individuals can do to alleviate distress when they experience irrational thoughts.


 * 1) What is an irrational belief?
 * 2) How are irrational beliefs related to distress?
 * 3) What motivates irrational beliefs?
 * 4) How can irrational beliefs be changed?

Types of irrational beliefs
Understanding irrational beliefs is tackled by many areas of behavioural science, mainly because irrationality appears to be experienced across all social and cultural groups (Gkontelos et al.,2021). REBT describes irrational beliefs as non-pragmatic, illogical and lacking empirical support, as opposed to rational beliefs, which are pragmatic, logical and reality-based (Ellis et al., 2009; Gkontelos et al.,2021). Additionally, they are often associated with dysfunctional behaviours and consequences (Gkontelos et al.,2021).

The most common irrational beliefs outlined by REBT are demandingness, depreciation, frustration intolerance (or low frustration tolerance) and awfulising.

Demandingness
Demandingness is a primary irrational belief because it can predict secondary irrational beliefs (Mansell & Turner 2022; Buschmann et al., 2018). It is characterised by absolute expressions, often prefaced with 'must' and 'should'. Demanding expressions set themselves apart from rational beliefs because they are often maladaptive demands to one's performance (Mansell & Turner 2022; Tóth et al., 2022).

Depreciation
Depreciation is characterised by negative evaluations of the self, leading to lower self-confidence (Mansell & Turner 2022; Buschmann et al., 2018). Depreciation can be related to the self (self-depreciation) or others (other-depreciation) (Turner, 2016).

Frustration intolerance
Frustration intolerance is experienced when individuals believe that they are unable to tolerate conditions of adversity (Mansell & Turner 2022). It can lead to procrastination when accompanied by boring and difficult tasks (Turner, 2016).

Awfulising
Awfulising beliefs occur when the individual aggravates the status of currently unpleasant events (Mansell & Turner 2022). It is positively related to a submissive interpersonal style (Turner, 2016).


 * Alex
 * Thinks he must get a high distinction in his units.
 * Thinks that if he gets a credit, he is a failure.
 * Believes that it would be unbearable to get less than a high distinction.
 * Believes that failing would be the worst thing that could happen to him.


 * Maddie
 * Knows that learning is more important, even if she does not achieve the highest mark.
 * Understands that not succeeding does not make her a failure.
 * Understands that failure is not unbearable.
 * Acknowledges that any receiving a grade that is lower than what she expects is not the worst thing that could happen to her.

{Which irrational thoughts is Alex displaying? -Awfulizing -Low-frustration tolerance -Self-depreciation -Depreciation +All of them
 * type=""}

Irrational beliefs and distress
Considerable research has pointed to a link between irrational beliefs and mental disorders. According to REBT, distress is not caused by particular situations, but by the individual's own evaluation of such situations (Chan & Sun, 2021). The rigidity and awfulising nature of irrational beliefs lead to emotional disturbance which can affect individuals' wellbeing (Chan & Sun, 2021).

Depression
Considerable research has pointed to a link between irrational beliefs, depression and anxiety. According to REBT, irrational beliefs can lead to automatic thoughts, which are negative in nature and can manifest unconsciously (e.g. "I am not good enough"), further leading to mental distress (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d; Buschmann et al., 2018). However, research has also pointed to some inconsistencies in the mediational role of automatic beliefs, suggesting that irrational beliefs may be directly connected to depressive symptoms (Buschmann et al., 2018). Buschmann et al. (2018) used self-reporting measures to investigate the relationship between irrational beliefs, automatic thoughts and depression. The study found that, when participants experienced stress, irrational beliefs led to more automatic thoughts which ultimately increased depressive symptoms (Buschmann et al., 2018).

Anger and aggression
REBT theory suggests that irrational beliefs are positively related to anger (Fives et al., 2011). A study by Martin and Dahler (2004) examined the relationship between irrational beliefs outlined by REBT and anger, by measuring participants' trait anger expression, personal beliefs and hostility through self-reporting scales. The study found that awfulising and frustration intolerance were related to aggressive expressions of anger, with the former being also related to the inability to control outwardly expressions of anger (Martin & Dahler, 2004). Additionally, the study also observed that depreciation may be related to derogatory thoughts (Martin & Dahler, 2004).

Moreover, REBT theory suggests that - when combined with irrational beliefs - anger can also lead to aggressive behaviours (Fives et al., 2011). A study by Fives et al. (2011) targeted adolescents from grades 9 to 12 to understand whether irrational beliefs could lead to aggression when combined with anger. Using self-reporting scales to assess irrational beliefs and aggression, the study found that while anger alone could predict verbal aggression when combined with irrational beliefs it could also predict physical aggression (Fives et al., 2011).

Psychological motivators
Identifying what irrational beliefs are and the distress that originates from them can be useful in establishing a connection between cognitions, emotions and behaviours. However, to comprehensively understand irrational beliefs, it is necessary to also point out what motivates them. Studies that investigate the origins of irrational beliefs date back to ancient Asian, Greek and Roman philosophers (Ellis, 2008). Epictetus, for example, believed that individuals are not only disturbed by what happens to them, but by their view on the events (Ellis, 2008). When Albert Ellis started creating REBT in 1953, he realised that the psychoanalytical theories of the time failed to explore why people experienced distress (Ellis, 2004). Ellis believed that all humans possess self-defeating tendencies and self-enhancing tendencies, which translate respectively into rationality and irrationality (Bernard et al., 2010). Leveraging on Epictetus' theory, REBT affirms that irrational beliefs can result from biological (patterns of thinking and behaving) factors (Browne et al., 2010).

Maladaptive schemas
Maladaptive schemas are self-defeating cognitive and emotional patterns that are repeated throughout life (Gholamzadeh et al., 2015). Beck (2008) hypothesised that challenging and stressful situations may lead to the activation of rigid and inflexible schemas, which ultimately influence the way information is evaluated and processed, leading to the formation of irrational beliefs (Buschmann et al., 2018). A study by Turner et al. (2019) investigated the relationship between irrational beliefs and maladaptive schemas in athletes, who are often exposed to high demands and pressures, which can negatively impact their mental health. The study found that athletes' maladaptive schemas mediated the relationship between irrational beliefs and distress, meaning that, when maladaptive schemas were introduced in the study, there was little evidence to suggest that irrational beliefs could influence athletes' distress on their own (Turner et al., 2019).

Similarly, Bidari et al. (2021) examined the relationship between schemas and irrational beliefs by analysing the effects of schema therapy on the irrational beliefs of women with marital conflict who showed signs of early maladaptive schemata. The goal of schema therapy is to identify and reduce unhealthy coping behaviours, which often perpetuate maladaptive schemas, and replace them with healthier and more adaptive schemas (Masley et al., 2012). The study showed that schema therapy successfully decreased the number of irrational beliefs experienced by the study's target population (Bidari et al., 2021). These results appear to suggest that maladaptive schemas may be a key motivator to explain the formation of irrational beliefs and their effects on well-being.

Heuristics
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that can facilitate information processing as they are quick, demand fewer resources and are usually beneficial for fast decision-making (Barlev & Neuberg, 2022; Lambos & Delfabbro, 2007). However, quick decision-making and information processing can often lead to misinformation and a distorted view of the world (Barlev & Neuberg, 2022). The influence of heuristics on irrational beliefs can often be observed in pathological gamblers, who tend to persist in their goal of winning despite suffering heavy losses (Lambos & Delfabbro, 2007). Lambos and Delfabbro (2007) theorised that pathological gamblers would showcase a higher number of irrational beliefs (in this case, related to perceived control and outcomes) regardless of their knowledge of general gambling odds and their reasoning abilities. The study was able to confirm this theory, as regardless of their education and mathematical literacy, pathological gamblers were likely to become susceptible to cognitive biases and present a higher number of irrational beliefs compared to less frequent gamblers (Lambos & Delfabbro, 2007). Results from this study suggest that even when provided with accurate and thorough information, cognitive biases can have a negative impact on rationality.

Personality traits
Research on personality has shown that personality traits can have a direct effect on how individuals cope with life events (Kabarsakal & Aydin, 2023). For example, studies have shown that the autonomic personality trait often leads to the development of useful problem-solving skills and psychological resilience among individuals (Kabarsakal & Aydin, 2023). Nevertheless, the relationship between personality traits and irrational beliefs has been severely underexplored by psychological research, as therapies such as REBT try to develop more adaptive ways of thinking without taking into account personality differences (Samar et al., 2013). Samar et al. (2013) investigated a possible connection between irrational beliefs and the five-factor model (FFM) of personality traits, to understand whether personality may motivate the development of rational or irrational beliefs. The study sampled a group of undergraduate students, measuring their irrational beliefs along with the five major domains of the FFM: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness (Samar et al., 2013). The study found that most personality traits were accurate predictors of irrational beliefs - with neuroticism and openness being associated with a higher score on total irrationality - while agreeableness did not appear to show a significant connection to irrational beliefs (Samar et al., 2013).

{In one of their classes, Alex and Maddie learn about the Big Five Personality Test (based on the FFM of personality traits). Later, they decide to take the test online to measure their personality. Who is more likely to score high on neuroticism? +Alex -Maddie
 * type=""}

Sociocultural motivators


Along with biological motivators, REBT also acknowledges the role of environmental factors in developing and fostering irrational beliefs (Browne et al., 2010). Studies on the sociocultural dimension of irrational beliefs have shown that institutions, such as schools and churches, help promote irrational beliefs among their members, further arguing that when individuals operate in an environment characterised by irrational beliefs, they are more likely to also develop irrational beliefs (King et al., 2023). The behaviour of parents, for example, is a great influence on a child's self-worth, as the expression or withdrawal of affection can affect the development of irrational beliefs (King et al., 2023). In a sports environment, the language used by coaches interacting with athletes may impact the formation and expression of irrational beliefs (see Figure 2) (King et al., 2023). Evans et al. (2018) tested this hypothesis by subjecting a sample of football athletes to either rational or irrational coach talks. For the purpose of the study, the 'irrational' coach talk included statements indicative of demandingness, depreciation, awfulising and frustration intolerance (Evans et al., 2018). The results proved that, while both groups of athletes were equally motivated, those who received irrational coach talks presented a higher level of demandingness, which may suggest that they were able to internalise and adopt the coach's irrational beliefs (Evans et al., 2018).

 "Choking under pressure" is a great example of how environmental factors can lead to irrational beliefs. This phenomenon can usually be observed in sports, as athletes can be subjected to intense pressure to succeed and to achieve high standards, which lead to higher self-depreciation (James, 1998). Hence, athletes who experience this condition become highly conscious of what they are doing, and end up performing worse during competitions (James, 1998). Mesagno et al. (2021) conducted a study on experienced Australian football players. The athletes firstly completed an irrational belief questionnaire and then were asked to perform in both high and low pressure conditions (Mesagno et al., 2021). The study showed that the athletes who scored high on the irrational belief questionnaire performed significantly worse when they were in the high pressure condition, which may suggest that environmental factors play an important role in motivating irrational beliefs (Mesagno et al., 2021).

The ABCDE model


REBT seeks to help people who experience emotional disturbances and help them achieve their goals (Bernard et al., 2010). To do so, the theory suggests that it is necessary to develop people's potential for rationality by helping them practice rational principles of living, with a focus on short-term goals (Bernard et al., 2010). The ABCDE model represents REBT's central idea for treatment, as it empowers clients to dispute their irrational beliefs (see Figure 3) (Bernard et al., 2010). According to the model, when people are confronted with adversities (A), they can either choose to hold rational or irrational beliefs (B), which can lead to healthy or unhealthy consequences (C) (Ellis, 2008). When seeking therapy, individuals are asked to dispute (D) their irrational beliefs and are encouraged (E) to replace their irrational beliefs with rational ones (Turner et al., 2020). Turner et al. (2020) applied the ABCDE model to a group of amateur golfers with the goal of decreasing irrational beliefs, which can often lead to performance anxiety. The study found that, after the intervention, all golfers displayed a decreased number of irrational beliefs and anxiety (Turner et al., 2020). Moreover, data collected after one month from the intervention, showed persistence in the study's initial results, further suggesting that REBT can lead to long-term change (Turner et al., 2020). However, the study also acknowledges that there are several areas for improving how the effectiveness of the ABCDE model is assessed, as longer and more detailed interventions may be able to not only be more affective, but also evaluate changes over time (Turner et al., 2020).

{Choose the correct answers and click "Submit":

What are some of the components of the ABCDE model?}


 * type=""}

+Adversity +Dispute -Connection -Bravery

Conclusion
Overall, it is clear how irrational beliefs can manifest in different ways. Demanding statements (such as "I need to"), awfulising statements, frustration intolerance and low self-confidence, can negatively impact an individual's wellbeing and ability to cope with adversity. Irrational beliefs appear to be motivated by a wide range of factors, both internal and external. Maladaptive schemas, heuristics and personality traits can be crucial motivators to foster the development of irrational beliefs. However, environmental pressures can be just as important. As the phenomenon of "choking under pressure" shows, a demanding environment can affect an individual's self-confidence, leading to unsatisfactory performances. Nevertheless, new forms of therapy - such as REBT's ABCDE model - have designed interventions to help individuals be aware of their irrational beliefs and work towards establishing new rational beliefs. Findings from applications of the ABCDE model show that teaching people how to be in control of their reactions can alleviate the distress caused by irrational beliefs.