Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Testosterone, winning, and losing

Overview


Imagine a climactic sports event - the crowd's roar reverberates through the stadium as two teams stand on the brink of triumph or defeat. Their physical prowess, mental resilience, and strategies have brought them here, but an often unspoken factor looms variable: testosterone. As the competition takes place, this hormone orchestrates a symphony of physiological and psychological responses that can tip the scales towards victory or plunge them into defeat; with testosterones levels changing due to the result. Testosterone is more than a physiological regulator, it is an androgen that facilitates dominance, ambition, self-assurance, priming individuals for assertive action. In the context of winning, and subsequently losing, testosterone levels in individuals can change, influencing behavior, motivation and emotion.

''How does winning makes us feel? How does losing make us feel? How do we react? When we win, do we want to win again and again? What role does testosterone play in winning and losing?''

Testosterone plays a major role in various aspects of human physiology and behaviors, being a hormone that develops and changes both physical and mental health. These mental health changes include a wide variety of mood, cognitive and behavioral changes. Additionally, testosterone's link to winning and losing in competitive scenarios is complex, due to changes in hormone levels that can change and affect an individual's behaviors. Factors such as aggression, dominance, social status and confidence are common characteristic changes. This chapter explores testosterone and its relationship between with winning and losing, the causality of this and the changes it creates. Furthermore, this chapter will link to motivational theories to develop understanding about this phenomenon. Additionally, research on behavioral outcomes from testosterone changes through win or loss and its future behaviors prediction are discussed.


 * 1) Define what Testosterone is, its hormonal function, and the role in mood, cognitive and behavioral changes.
 * 2) Understand the relationship between testosterone, winning and losing and its complex causal relationship.
 * 3) Demonstrate ability to analyze and apply theoretical concepts to real-world case studies
 * 4) Apply motivational, social and behavioral theories to explain cognitive and behavioral change due to testosterone and its relationship with winning and losing

Testosterone
Testosterone is androgen hormone in people, and is the primary male sex hormone and anabolic steroid in males. Testosterone is secreted in the male testes, and is also present in females in the ovaries. Testosterone production between genders is around fifteen to twenty times stronger in males than females. Testosterone plays a key role in sexual reproductive tissues and growth in males, as well as developing secondary sexual characteristics. Testosterone is linked to behavioral changes, including increased violence, aggression and violent criminal behavior. Additionally, testosterone extends its influence to motivational processes, including dominance, sex drive, power and attachment (Mooradian, Morley and Korenman, 1987).

Cortisol


Along with the hormone testosterone, cortisol is also a steroid hormone that plays important functions to the human body. Testosterone and cortisol often interact in complex ways, with these interactions being influenced by various factors. These factors are a range of stress, competition and social dynamics. Studies on testosterone and cortisol have shown that there complex interactions and dynamics, with cortisol suppressing activity of the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal (see Figure 2) (HPG axis), inhibits testosterone action on target tissue, as well as cortisol downregulating androgen receptors (Tillbrook et al., 2000). Additionally, within male populations, research has found evidence that testosterone interacts with cortisol to predict physical aggression (Pompa et al., 2007). This dynamic of testosterone and cortisol is evident across many studies in relation to winning and losing, providing further detail on how testosterone affects, and is effected through win or loss.

Key Points


 * Primary male sex hormone and anabolic steroid, androgen that promotes and contributes to growth in both male and females.
 * Testosterone between genders sees that males typically have more than 15-20 times more testosterone levels than women of similar age.
 * Involved in many motivational processes, namely dominance, sex drive, power and attachment.
 * Power motives associated with testosterone release.
 * Cortisol and testosterone are two steroid hormones that interact with each other and contribute to testosterone changes through win or loss.

Testosterone and Competition


Associated with high competition, status-seeking, and sexual motivation (Bancroft, 2012), high levels of testosterone promotes competition (see Figure 3). High testosterone is correlated in winning competitions for social status-seeking behaviors and is most strongly associated when social dominance or status has been threatened (after losing a competition or battle) (Josephs et al., 2003). Ellison (2001), also found that testosterone drives mating efforts, predominantly in males, as it helps modulate the motivation to seek mating opportunities and motivation to compete socially with other males (self-confidence and social assertiveness).

Causal Relationship
When discussing winning and losing, and the role testosterone plays in these outcomes, it is important to investigate the causality and direction to understand that both can influence each other in terms of testosterone levels and the outcome (win/loss).

Challenge Hypothesis
The challenge hypothesis (Wingfield et al., 1990) was proposed initially to account for testosterone-aggression association in birds within a mating system context. The challenge hypothesis states there is specific content-dependent increases in testosterone levels that are correlated and associated with aggression. These testosterone levels changes prime male birds for aggressive encounters with other males, engaging in competition for territory or for mating during breeding season. Archer (2006) extends this initial challenge hypothesis into human context. Whilst mating is quite different as oppose to birds, a distant taxonomic group, the understanding of testosterone increase (or fluctuation) when challenged (especially in same-sex competitions and situations), we can see this aggressive association take place when a man is being challenged. Archer (2006) evaluates the challenge hypothesis, and analyzed male testosterone responses to competition. Through this research and empirical evidence, it was found that broadly, men respond to competitive situations with increased testosterone levels. It also found that sport and competitive contexts increased testosterone levels, with completive sport contexts leading to greater increases in testosterone levels. Winning these competitive contexts also greatly increased testosterone levels and a strong association with particular behavior seeking to exercise power over others. While the initial challenge hypothesis highlight the strong correlation in elevated testosterone levels and breeding seasons in male birds, with association and links to aggressive and dominant behavior for mates and resources, this challenge hypothesis has been expanded into human behavior, with increased testosterone leading to more aggressive, dominant and power motivated behavior being observed when males are presented with a challenge or competition.

Biosocial model of status
Research over a century has strongly suggested that testosterone regulates competitive and social dominant behaviors (Zilioli et al., 2014). The biosocial model of status (BMS) is one of the most influential theories, stating that there is a dynamic, bidirectional relationship between testosterone and status. Additionally, BMS specifically predicts that winning a competition should cause a rise in testosterone in relation to losing, and this change in testosterone levels guide people toward or away from future attempts at gaining status (Mazur & Booth, 1998). This model has empirical support, with studies on sport competitions being consistent with BMS predictions, testosterone increase in winners, decrease in losers. These changes in testosterone are also shown out of direct competition, Carré and Putnam (2010) saw an increase in hockey athletes testosterone when reviewing a winning game on film, Obama supporters testosterone increased when he won the election in 2008 while McCain supporters testosterone decreased (Stanton, Beehner, Saini, Kuhn and LaBar, 2009), and sports fans levels increased and decreased respectively when their team won or lost (Bernhardt et al., 1998).

Complexity in Testosterone-competition relationship
While this model shows a strong correlation between increased testosterone in winning and decreased testosterone in losing, with empirical research and evidence, there are various factors that need to be addressed to understand that the relationship of testosterone in competition is more complex than is shown. Firstly, testosterone level rising is also due to facing social challenge (Wingfield et al., 1990) like a competition, and that the increase in testosterone may be due to a biological mechanism for rapid dominance adjustment, playing a role in overall testosterone level. Secondly, a lot of research on testosterone levels has been done predominantly in males, with lesser data research in women. While testosterone research in men have seen BMS predictions in men as well as increased aggression, dominance and other factors, female data presents results that contradict BMS predictions, as well as various levels not being affected, unlike men (Zilioli Mehta and Watson, 2014). Thirdly, some reports have found that testosterone can also be increased after losing (Gonzalez-Bono et al., 2000) as well as higher testosterone levels when competitors are surprised by the loss (Zilioli, Mehta and Watson, 2014). Lastly, the University of Missouri (2013) studied males from various age groups playing games and sport. They found that testosterone levels increased when they won and dropped after defeat when versing a group outside their community, but when these games were played with friends, there was no significant change in testosterone levels. Whilst a clear relationship between testosterone, winning and losing, the change of testosterone levels appears to be influenced by a complex array individual attributes, social dynamics and biological differences that extend beyond a simple win increase/lose decrease dichotomy.

Case Study: Testosterone responsiveness to winning and losing experiences in female soccer players Oliveria, Gouveia & Oliveira (2009)


 * Social Challenge, like fighting an opponent, elicits an androgen response
 * Lead to two independent hypotheses about interaction between androgen and competitive behaviour
 * perception of contest outcome, winning or losing, seems to modulate the androgen responsiveness.
 * Study of female soccer players used to evaluate hormonal responses in winners and losers of a single competition
 * Testosterone levels rose in both teams before the game
 * Testosterone levels in the winners had an increase, while the losers had a significant decrease
 * Change in testosterone levels over the match was correlated both with observed performance and with an increase in positive mood

Testosterone level change impact
Many studies have concluded that testosterone levels directly influence social motivation and behavior. However, behavior and social environments also influence testosterone levels as well, as seen in competitive interactions and winning or losing scenarios (Mehta, Josephs, 2010). These influences can have effect and affects on various social motivational and behavioral processes.

Testosterone androgen receptors bind to various tissues throughout the body, and can have profound impact on behavioral and cognitive processes due these receptors being bound in tissue in the brain. These neural circuits and neurotransmitter systems testosterone is bound to can have direct influence on various motivational change on behavior, mood and cognitive processes due to testosterone level increase or decrease. In terms of behavioral changes, it can be dependent on the basal testosterone level of an individual, as people with high and low levels of testosterone may act different in the same situation, varying results in term of behavior change (Mehta, Jones and Josephs, 2008). However, increase and decrease of testosterone levels still have patterns and can also predict  behavioral change. The interplay of winning and losing in relationship to testosterone shows that these outcomes elicit a increase or decrease in testosterone level. Using this knowledge, we can see how this change can have various impacts on these behavioral, cognitive and motivational factors.

Aggression


Aggression is defined as a behavior toward another individual with the intent to cause harm, in context of competition for resources (food, shelter, status, opportunity)(Baron and Richardson, 1994). Testosterone and aggression are often associated closely with each other, due to testosterone being a steroid hormone, making it a primary biological candidate for mediating aggressive behavior (Carré and Olmstead, 2015). The 'Challenge Hypothesis' and 'Biosocial Model of Status' are two key theoretical model that focus on this relationship and aggressive behavior. In winning and losing, competitive sports can facilitate expression of aggression (or aggressive based impulses) for high-power striving individuals, as societal norms controls and inhibits aggressive behavior in majority of contexts (see Figure 4) (Reeve, 2018). Carré and Olmstead (2015) also investigated the relationship of testosterone and human competition/aggressive behavior. Whilst the research found that expanded on testosterone concentration levels and the ability for individuals to modulate behavior in a social environment (competition), as well as acute change in testosterone levels during competition can predict subsequent aggressive behavior in young men, this research and prior studies need focus in different areas such as sex differences, social context and individual factors to determine more conclusive outcomes on testosterone relationship with aggression. Additionally, research has seen testosterone changes reliably predict aggressive behavior in response to competition (Geniole et al., 2017).

Status Seeking Behavior
Large literature on social behavior and hormones show that testosterone levels are associated with dominate  behaviors intended to gain or maintain high status (Mazur and Booth, 1998). Elevated testosterone levels are associated positively with social rank and dominant behaviors, and is shown in a variety of species, such as primates. This extends to humans, with people high in basal testosterone are more likely to be more aggressive and more dominant than individuals with lower basal testosterone levels (Archer, 2006). In the context of winning and losing, previous experience in a victory and defeat can affect testosterone levels prior to a subsequent competition taking place and testosterone levels before, during and after competition (Mazur, Booth and Dabbs, 1992; van Anders and Watson, 2007).

Mazur and Booth's (1998) reciprocal model of testosterone and status indicate a increase of testosterone levels in winning and decrease in defeat. These changes in testosterone levels are expected to produce a reciprocal effect by influencing subsequent status-seeking behaviors (Mehta and Josephs, 2010). This status-seeking behavior from empirical studies in sport competitions and rigged experimental research have shown that testosterone increase encourages further attempts at gaining status, while decreases leads to avoidance or withdrawal in attempts to gain status back, as a measure to prevent further loss of status. While this win-loss/increase-decrease relationship has been varied, Mehta and Josephs (2006) experimental research gave insight on testosterone and status seeking motivation. This study consisted of a rigged competition, with saliva samples collected before and after competition. After the second saliva sample, participants were asked if they wanted to challenge their opponent again or complete a different non-competitive task. The results found that participants that rose in testosterone after a loss wanted to rechallenge (73%) in comparison to those who dropped in testosterone levels (22%). It indicated that a rise in testosterone after a defeat still motivated further attempts at gaining status, whilst a decline in testosterone resulted in avoidance in further loss of status.

Power motivation
Power motivation is a motive for people that involves a need to influence, control or impress other people, to achieve recognition or acclaim for one's power-oriented actions (Fodor, 2009). The reason for this need of power center around the need for dominance, status and position as high status (Reeve, 2018). With dominance being closely linked with testosterone, individuals with high levels of testosterone may strive to achieve status or power by winning in competitive social interactions. Winter (1973) stated that high-power striving individuals are seen to have preference for highly competitive sports, as they offer opportunity to exercise power and social recognition for enacting power and influencing others. This behavior of seeking dominance due to testosterone changes is reflected in implicit power motivation, which is a unconscious need to have impact on others (Winter, 1973). In winning and losing, Wirth, Welsh and Schultheiss (2006) studied the change of testosterone and cortisol levels predicted by implicit power motivation levels, to see if high levels of implicit power motivation also correlated with an increase in cortisol level after a dominance contest was completed. The results found increased cortisol level post-contest were associated with high level of power motivation amongst losers but with low levels of power motivation amongst winners. This study suggests that dominance success is stressful for low-power individuals, while social defeat is stressful for high-power among winners.

Risk Taking
Testosterone levels has also been linked with subsequent risk taking behavior, as risk taking behavior can also be aggressive behavior, where injury, death, harm to oneself or others and loss status are potential consequences due to risk taking behavior. Apicella et al. (2014) researched men's testosterone levels before and after a competitive task, with a risk assessment taken post-competition. They found that men who had an increase in testosterone levels were less risk averse than men who had a decrease in testosterone level. However, a later study (Welker et al., unpublished) also found that the relationship between testosterone responses to competition and subsequent risk taking behavior was moderated by the competition outcome, with an increased testosterone level in response to competition was positively correlated with subsequent risk taking behavior in winners, not losers. While risk taking behavior is evident within testosterone changes throughout competition or social challenge, these findings do not conclude in a simple cause and effect relationship, as a multitude of factors such as age, gender, biological differences, social context and other factors play roles in an individual's subsequent risk taking behavior.

Conclusion
Testosterone and its relationship with winning and losing is a complex bidirectional one, with both being effected and affected by each other, as competition with a win or loss outcome changes testosterone levels. This results in a multitude of behavioral and motivational impacts which can vary from individuals, depending on a range of characteristics (gender, basal testosterone, prior experience with win/loss, social context, personal motivation). Testosterone, being a hormone associated with aggression, dominance and status-seeking behavior, broadly increases prior to a win/loss challenge or competition, and this testosterone levels can change throughout the competition depending on the outcome during, and after winning or losing. Testosterone can increase in win or loss, and decrease on loss, depending on psychosocial factors, that produces different results depending on the competitive context, the individuals who are competing, and what they are competing for. Testosterone, winning and losing provide a dynamic interplay with each other that is complex and far from linear. Further research in defining this relationship must continue to enhance the learning and full understanding of hormonal influence and change in the response to winning or losing, especially in female competition as previous research has predominantly been only on men.