Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Time management

Overview
Imagine...

You are waking up to your alarm, which is ringing again for the eighth time because you keep hitting the snooze button. You know you have an assignment due tonight that you have put off for a month, which you aren’t close to finishing. You already feel the looming stress. Your phone dings, you check your phone and quickly slip away into the world of social media. Two hours have passed, which has now chewed up some of your day. As the day goes on, you continue to stress over the deadline, but do nothing about it and distract yourself with trivial tasks, such as tidying your bookshelf. As if time melted away (see Figure 1), your assignment is now due in three hours. You finally sit down and tackle it, only just making the deadline. Flustered and stressed, you go to bed dreading tomorrow ... because you have another assignment due.

Time management is the process of planning and exercising conscious control of time spent on specific activities. Its purpose is to enhance efficiency, productivity and effectiveness. It is an important life skill which assists one to juggle the many facets of life such as work, school, social commitments, family life and other activities. Importantly, it has psychological effects such as stress reduction, productivity and builds self-efficacy.

This chapter covers why time management is important, the common barriers of effective time management, current theories, and strategies to achieve effective time management. It also covers how psychological science can help cultivate effective time management through proven theories.

Focus questions:
 * What is time management?
 * Why is time management important?
 * What are the major theories of time management?
 * How can one manage their time better?

Why is time management important?
Humans all have a finite time on this earth, and how time is spent can lead to one's satisfaction or dissatisfaction in life. Good time management is linked to productivity, positive work performance and positive academic performance (Aeon, 2021). Further, and most importantly, effective time management is linked to a number of positive effects including overall life satisfaction (Aeon, 2021). Here are a three reasons why time management is important.

Productivity and achievement
When time is managed effectively, it enables the productive use of this finite time to achieve goals and aspirations, both professional and personal. Time management achieves this through allowing one to focus on the task at hand, leading to more productive outcomes (Chase, 2013). Further, it can allow for clarity on the tasks that are important and should be prioritised, and help push aside tasks that aren't urgent or may be trivial. When prioritising, it allows for reduced procrastination and enhanced concentration on tasks that are important, resulting in increased productivity and achievement of results (Steel, 2007).

Reduce stress
Stress can have a number of negative effects on the body and brain, including memory and cognition. Prolonged and severe stress can inflict a plethora of disorders, both long-term and short-term (Yaribeygi et al., 2017). Stress can be brought on when one is are overwhelmed with a large number of tasks. High stress is common amongst university students, particularly those who are measured to have poor time management behaviours (Misra, 2000). However, this is applicable to people in most situations; a combination of high task load and poor time management skills creates heightened stress. Studies have shown that those who implement time management behaviours have significantly reduces stress levels. Further, after implementing time management, individuals then had the time to engage in leisure activities, which reduced stress further and increased overall life satisfaction (Misra, 2000).

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is one's belief to perform a given task and is able to achieve the goal (Bandura, 1982). Self-efficacy and time management are positively associated (Bowman et al., 2019; Galindo-Domínguez & Bezanilla, 2021; Wolters & Brady, 2020). When individuals can manage tasks effectively and achieve goals, their self-efficacy is boosted. Ormrod (2000) found that in an educational setting, if students with high-efficacy were unable to follow a course, they found effective ways around the issue and controlled the difficulties to achieve their goal. While students with low self-efficacy would discontinue the endeavour, and were unable to remove barriers in achieving and learning. Low self-efficacy can be linked to avoiding difficult tasks as they may be perceived as threats that cannot be achieved. Further, it is linked to depression and increased stress levels (Bandura, 2010). Self-efficacy is an important factor in time management behaviours, as it can support our beliefs in our achievement.

Case study: Daniel is a successful public servant from Canberra in his 30s. When we first met Daniel, he was haphazardly dividing his time between managing his career, juggling an increasingly-busy social life, and trying to figure out how to drop a number of bad time management habits.

Here are some of the things that he wants:
 * Spend less time after hours at work.
 * To free up more time to socialise with friends.
 * Work on creating healthy sleeping and eating habits.
 * To learn Spanish.

Follow along with Daniel's story throughout this chapter, and see how he handles his busy lifestyle.

Common barriers of effective time management


Many people live busy lives and have a long list of tasks, goals and aspirations that one wishes to accomplish. Sometimes individuals may feel like there is too much on their plates to handle. There may be numerous goals they wish to accomplish but don't know where to start or how to find the time. There are several reasons why people struggle with time management.

Low motivation
Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals towards engaging in goal-directed behaviour. It is responsible to starting, maintaining and ceasing behaviours relating to our goals. It explains why individuals engage in particular behaviours and activities. When one has a sense of low motivation, this may be due a number of intrinsic or extrinsic factors. Commonly, low motivation can be attributed to a lack of interests in the task at hand, feeling overwhelmed with tasks, or overall stress. It is also a common theme among the common barriers, as the tasks assigned may not align with ones priorities or values. Perhaps there is a need to re-evaluate priorities.

Procrastination
Procrastination is the act of unnecessarily and voluntarily delaying or postponing something despite knowing that there will be negative consequences for doing so (Gao et al., 2021). Similar to low motivation, this can occur when one feels overwhelmed or lacks interest or motivation in the task. Procrastination can lead to a number of tasks piling up (Figure 2), leading to stress, which then creates a cycle of procrastination.

Lack of organisation
The absence of organisation can be a significant barrier to effective time management (Allen, 2015). When there is a lack structure and order, one may spend a significant amount of time searching for items or switching between tasks, rather than focusing on the task itself. This can become exacerbated when working on a number of projects at once, as it disrupts work flow. Additionally, when juggling multiple projects simultaneously, poor organisation can lead to confusion, overwhelm, and reduced motivation (Covey, 2020). Lack of routine and structure in our lives can cause unnecessary stress and anxiety (Arlinghaus & Johnston, 2019). Further, decision fatigue may follow, where one is in a state of mental overload when tasked with making a number of decisions impeding on their ability to make informed decisions.

Hyperbolic discounting
The decisions made in the present can have implications in the future (Kim, 2019). Cognitive biases interfere with the ability to be productive and manage time well. A common, and prevalent cognitive bias, is hyperbolic discounting (Takahashi, 2009). Hyperbolic discounting is the tendency to choose smaller rewards now over larger rewards in the future (Takahashi, 2009). This bias is why individuals choose impulsivity and immediate gratification over long-term goals (Koritzky, 2013). Example: you would rather sit on your phone and scroll social media than get up and exercise - this is also known as an intertemporal choice. Decisions such as these show the trade-off that is making decisions in the present, and not understanding the future implications of that decision down the road (Kim, 2019). This is a common barrier to time management as instant gratification comes with an instant dopamine hit; this can become addictive, increasing impulsive decisions (Gao, 2021).

Case study: To help Daniel manage his lifestyle, he identified his barriers that are affecting his time management:
 * At work, he forgets to file documents during the day, resulting in working overtime.
 * Sleeping in and rushing to work.
 * Hours spent aimlessly scrolling on social media.
 * Too much time spent watching TV.

Can you categorise Daniel's behaviours under the common barriers listed?

Theories of time management
The internet today offers many popular theories or suggestions to enhance one's time management. Analysing these theories bring to the surface the common theme of prioritising tasks, including reflection on what is important to you regarding your time. They also identify ways to tackle your tasks. The following theories below offer a number of practical ways to hack time management.

ABC model of time management
Originally developed by Alan Lakein, the ABC model is a method to categorise tasks in to A, B and C categories. This method works by directing your attention and energy on the most urgent and important tasks, rather than menial ones. An A status item is a "must do" and refers to work that demands immediate or urgent completion, often involving projects with set deadlines. B status items are a "should do" and pertain to tasks without strict time constraints or deadlines, but should still be completed at the earliest convenience; This may be archiving emails from a project. C items are the "nice to do" items; these are the least critical tasks of the three and can be done whenever there's some available time.

Pareto’s principle
The Pareto's principle, also known as the 80-20 Rule, was discovered by Vilfredo Pareto. It states that 20% of your efforts produce 80% of your results. Essentially, this principle helps you identify and decide which resources are the most important for you to reach the greatest efficiency.

Firstly, in order to yield the best results, recognise and focus on the 20% of your efforts that are leading to the 80% of your desires outcomes. Next, identify your active hours and try to remain focused when you are most productive. Throughout your work, ensure you review and just priorities and adapt as needed. During these active hours, you can then pair up this principle with other techniques.

Though this principle doesn't have direct time management techniques, it asks you to focus on prioritisation and efficiency; It asks you to remove what is not important and focus on the 20% that will help you achieve the greatest success in the shortest amount of time.

Pomodoro technique


The Pomodoro Technique, developed by Francesco Cirillo, is designed to break down big tasks into smaller bite-sized pieces. This technique dates back to the late 1980s and was developed by Francesco Cirillo. This technique is good for procrastinators, further, it helps strengthen focus and boosts productivity (Cirrilo, 2022).

To implement, you:
 * 1) Select a task you wish to complete;
 * 2) Set your timer for 25 minutes (see Figure 3) and work on that task until the timer goes off;
 * 3) When your session ends, mark off one pomodoro (Italian for tomato) and record what you completed;
 * 4) Take a 5 minute break;
 * 5) Repeat; and
 * 6) After four pomodoros, take a longer 15-30 minute break.

Strategies to achieve effective time management
There are a number of strategies that can be used to achieve time management. These strategies can be broken down into two structures: motivation and behavioural management.

Motivation
Motivation plays a pivotal role in addressing the common barriers to effective time management, as it often hinges on a clear sense of purpose or a larger goal. Consider why you want to master time management; what drives your motivation? You may do this by:
 * Reflecting on the purpose for managing your time;
 * Reflecting on how inadequate time management might impact your aspirations and emotions - how would it make you feel if you didn't achieve your goal?; and
 * Reflecting on your perspective and understanding of good time management, or, what makes you feel like you have succeeded in managing your time?

Further to this, explore what messages you tell yourself about your time management. The self-affirmations (both positive and negative) told to us have the ability to effect how emotions or behaviours are cultivated. Building self-concept through changing negative self-affirmations to positive may be useful to build motivation and empower time management. For example, instead of saying "I am so bad at managing my time" change the self-affirmation to "I am good at time management; I am productive and efficient with my time".

Behavioural management
Analyse how ones time is spent throughout the day using time assessment. This process aims to create awareness of the here and now (Kaufman‐Scarborough, 1999) and increase self-awareness of one’s use of their time (Wratcher, 1988). This awareness allows for reflection of time constraints, priorities and spaces where time management can be improved. This also allows the ability to have oversight of ones capacity, particularly in a work environment, creating the space to accept tasks and responsibilities that fit within their capabilities.

Implementing planning behaviours, such as: setting goals, making to-do lists, planning out tasks (what are the steps to complete said task), prioritising tasks based on urgency and importance, grouping tasks (identify what tasks are related to each other and can be grouped together), and time blocking are all valid and common ways one can manage time. These practices can be implemented alongside the theories of time management. It is important to note that this process is not a one size fits all approach, and is about trial and error until a suitable method that works for the individual is found.

Along with implementing planning behaviours, seek to implement a habitual daily routine. The human brain enjoys habits. Every day we engage in habitual behaviour, whether conscious or subconscious, small habits like brushing our teeth, to big habits like driving the same rout to work every day. Habits allow us to engage in tasks without thinking, so the brain is not working overtime to achieve these tasks (Graybiel & Smith, 2014). Further, habitual behaviour has been linked to a loop in the brain called the sensorimotor loop, which connects the sensorimotor cortex (located in postcentral gyrus) to the dorsolateral striatum (part of the basal ganglia) (Mendelsohn, 2019). Neuroscientists have found that as learned behaviours become automatic, the sensorimotor loop takes a more active role in encoding the features of the behaviour. Goals energize and direct action by defining a desired end state, which influence habit formation through initially motivating people to engage in or repeat actions in particular contexts. When a habit is formed, context cues automatically activate the habit representation in memory. This then leads to individuals acting on the habit, as well as on their prevailing goals (Wood & Rünger, 2016). A big piece to habit formation is the associative and reward-learning mechanisms. These mechanisms are supported by the dopamine systems to reinforce habit processes (Wood & Rünger, 2016). Eventually, the habit will become a natural subconscious behaviour and the reward can be removed without impacting the behaviour. On average, it takes 66 days to create a habit (Lally, 2010); why not start today?

Case study: Daniel Identified key interests and areas in his life that he wanted to improve. He analysed how he spent his day and assessed his goals. He decided that the following were his current priorities:
 * Keep himself organised at work to ensure he finishes on time.
 * Go to the gym.
 * To free up more time to socialise with friends.
 * To learn Spanish.

Operationalising these goals, he implemented a daily routine. This routine allowed him to wake up an hour earlier to go to the gym. During his day at work, he blocked out time in his calendar to dedicate time to filing documents, allowing him to finish on time. Now that Daniel finishes work on time, he is able to spend his evening at Spanish class, or socialising with friends.

Daniel is now happy as his routine has supported him to achieve his motivational goals.

Conclusion
Time management is important for overall life satisfaction, and can help reduce stress and increase self-efficacy. When struggling with time management, there can be a large number of negative consequences. The common theme underpinning time management is ones greater goals and priorities. When one can brush aside immediate gratification and get in touch with the bigger goal or achievement, it becomes easier to implement strategies to enhance your time management behaviours and habits. Further, individuals should use their biological mechanisms to their advantage when seeking to create discipline in time management. The human brain is wired to create habits and does this through associative and reward-learning mechanisms. When these mechanisms are engaged, and underlying motivators and goals are addressed, one can transform and manage their time effectively. There is no one-way-fix-all for everyone, each person operates differently. It is important that individuals explore what methods and theories work for them and continuously reflect and adapt on their strategies as needed.