Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Yoga and emotional regulation

Overview
Yoga, an integrated system comprising of a combination of physical, mental and spiritual practices has garnered substantial attention in contemporary psychological research due to its potential applicability in enhancing emotional well-being. This book chapter will consider psychosomatic and neurobiological perspectives and explore how yoga, by bringing about harmony between the mind and body, can influence emotional states, potentially alleviating emotional dysregulation, and fostering emotional resilience. In doing so, it sheds light on the emerging body of scientific evidence that supports the effectiveness of yoga as a therapeutic tool for managing emotional disorders and promoting psychological well-being. This chapter is a valuable resource for those seeking to understand the profound impact of yoga on emotional health and the science that underpins its therapeutic potential.

Focus questions:
 * What are the physiological effects of yoga?
 * Can yoga be utilised to regulate emotions?

Introduction
The field of emotional regulation has experienced a surge in interest, primarily driven by the growing awareness of the correlation between emotional regulation and mental health (Cisler et al., 2010). Effectively managing and controlling one's emotions is now acknowledged as a primary determinant of overall psychological well-being. Subsequent research has unveiled a compelling association between challenges in emotional regulation and the personality trait of neuroticism, characterized by emotional volatility, heightened anxiety, and increased susceptibility to stress (Cisler et al., 2010). This link bears significant implications, given that neuroticism is widely recognized as a key predisposing factor in the onset of various psychopathological conditions (Brown et al., 2022). In this context, the practice of yoga emerges as a valuable tool for emotional regulation. It empowers individuals to cultivate emotional awareness, reduce stress, and enhance their ability to manage their emotional responses (Gard, 2014). Through regular practice, yoga provides a pathway to fortify emotional regulation skills, promoting mental health and well-being. (Brown et al., 2022)

Mechanisms of emotion regulation
Research by Thayer et al. (2000), uncovered the link between emotional regulation and heart rate variability (HRV), particularly in Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). It challenges the typical view associating anxiety with increased arousal, proposing that the heightened arousal in anxiety is due to a deficit in the inhibitory activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. The study demonstrated how individuals who worry extensively show less adaptability, struggling with orienting to stimuli and processing emotions appropriately. These limitations perpetuate anxiety and hinder their ability to sense safety, as observed in low HRV cases. The research also highlights how neural circuits governing autonomic, attentional, and affective regulation share structural similarities, forming a unified unit vital for adaptability and goal-directed behavior. It emphasizes the critical role of inhibitory processes in balancing positive and negative feedback circuits. Dysfunctional inhibitory mechanisms may lead to perseveration, limiting resources for various mental processes and potentially contributing to anxiety disorders.To provide a more comprehensive framework for understanding these findings, Thayer et al. (2000) proposed the Neurovisceral integration model (NVM). This model is pertinent to understanding the interaction between the autonomic nervous system and emotional regulation. This model suggests that the state of the autonomic nervous system, particularly heart rate variability (HRV), is a key determinant of an individual's capacity for self-regulation and adaptability.

Building upon the neurobiological perspective, a study by Davidson et al. (1999) emphasizes the importance of deconstructing emotions into their fundamental components to gain insight into the underlying neural mechanisms. This approach parallels the methodology employed in cognitive neuroscience, which dissects intricate mental processes into elementary constituents. In their study, Davidson et al (1999) incorporated various techniques, including lesion studies, PET scans, and fMRI scans, to delineate the specific brain circuitry responsible for positive and negative emotions within the framework of emotional regulation. Within this circuitry, critical regions, such as the ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the amygdala, ventral striatum, anterior cingulate, and insular cortex, were identified as significant contributors to emotional regulation. However, they postulated that further research was needed to firmly establish the distinct functions of each region. Furthermore, the research compiled results that pointed to a lateralization of emotional valence processing, signifying a pronounced role of the right prefrontal cortex in the regulation of aversive emotional reactions (Davidson et al., 1999).

While Neurobiological models primarily focus on the underlying brain mechanisms and physiological processes involved in emotion regulation, James J. Gross's (2015) model of emotion regulation offers a cognitive framework focussing on how individuals regulate their emotions throughout the emotion-generative process. This model divides emotion regulation into five distinct stages, each with its unique focus and strategies. The first stage is situation selection, where individuals choose the situations they enter based on their emotional goals. This is followed by situation modification, in which people actively modify aspects of a situation to better align with their emotional objectives. The third stage is attentional deployment, involving directing one's attention toward specific aspects of the situation to influence emotional responses. Cognitive change, the fourth stage, entails altering thought patterns and interpretations to manage emotions effectively. Finally, the fifth stage is response modulation, where individuals regulate emotional expressions and physiological responses. Gross's model marks that the type and timing of emotion regulation strategies significantly impact the emotions experienced and expressed. This model aligns with other approaches that emphasize the active role individuals play in influencing their emotional experiences and expressions throughout the emotion-generative process (Gross, 2015).

Definition of Yoga


The term "yoga" is derived from the Sanskrit word "yuj," which means "to yoke" or "to unite". In line with this translation, one meaning of yoga is aspiration towards a state of integration or unity between various aspects of an individual's being, such as the body, mind, and spirit. Another definition in alignment with yoga's spiritual and esoteric heritage, describes yoga as a spiritual practice undertaken with the goal of union with the divine through the merging of the individual consciousness with the universal consciousness as referenced in various Yoga texts. Practices are undertaken as a sadhana or spiritual practice to attain an expanded state of consciousness similar to the Self actualised state described by Maslow in his hierarchy of needs. This fundamental idea of union and connection is at the heart of yoga's philosophy and practice.

History and background
Yoga's historical origins are deeply rooted in ancient traditions from India and encompass significant archaeological discoveries such as the unearthing of seals from the Indus Valley, particularly at Mohenjo-Daro (Kenoyer, 1991), showcasing postures reminiscent of yoga. These significant archaeological discoveries present compelling evidence of yoga's roots in antiquity. The distinctive pose adopted by the being depicted in Figure 1 is a specific type of bandha. A bandha within a Yogic context refers to the intentional constriction or contraction of specific regions of the body. Dhyansky (1987) describes bandhas as holding a crucial place in the practice of yoga that are often employed alongside yoga postures (asanas), hand gestures (mudras), and controlled breathing techniques (pranayama) to regulate and enhance the practitioner's experience. The specific bandha shown in Figure 1 is the Mulabandha, which involves the deliberate tightening of the lower abdomen and the entire area situated below the navel while turning the feet in touching each other. (Svātmārāma et al.,1974).



The introduction of yoga to the Western world can be attributed to Swami Vivekananda, a revered spiritual leader. His momentous address at the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893 (See Figure 2) marked a turning point in the global dissemination of yoga. Vivekananda's teachings emphasized the universal nature of all religions and the profound significance of yoga as a pragmatic pathway to spiritual realization. This influential event laid the groundwork for the worldwide recognition and embrace of yoga's transformative potential. (Vivekananda, 1893)

Another luminary figure in the propagation of yoga to the West was Paramahansa Yogananda. His best selling book, "Autobiography of a Yogi," was majorly influential in introducing Western audiences to yoga philosophy, meditation, and spiritual principles. Yogananda advocated the synthesis of Eastern spiritual wisdom with Western scientific insights, shaping the way yoga was perceived and integrated into modern societies. (Yogananda, 1946)

Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, a profound scholar and yogi, earned the moniker "father of modern yoga" through his pioneering work in the field of Yoga (Desikachar, 1995). He studied under the guidance of illustrious yoga masters and was the catalyst for adapting traditional yoga practices to suit contemporary lifestyles. Krishnamacharya's emphasis on yoga's therapeutic aspects and personalized approach paved the way for various yoga styles, including Ashtanga, Iyengar, and Viniyoga, which have had a profound impact on the global yoga community.

One of Krishnamacharya's most distinguished disciples, B.K.S. Iyengar, made significant contributions to the worldwide popularity of yoga. He developed the Iyengar yoga method, renowned for its precision and emphasis on alignment. Iyengar's approach made yoga accessible to individuals of all ages and physical abilities. His influential book, "Light on Yoga," became an essential reference for yoga practitioners around the world.

These notable figures and historical elements have collectively shaped yoga into a holistic practice that nurtures physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.

Yoga models


Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga, detailed in his Yoga Sutras, is a comprehensive framework comprising eight interconnected limbs, each guiding the practitioner toward spiritual growth and self-realization. The path begins with Yamas and Niyamas (ethical principles) that govern one's behavior and inner values (Patanjali, Yoga Sutras). Asanas, the physical postures, serve as a means to attain physical health, mental steadiness, and a harmonious connection between the body and mind (Patanjali, Yoga Sutras). Pranayama, breath control, harnesses the life force, enhancing awareness and vitality (Patanjali, Yoga Sutras). Pratyahara, the withdrawal of the senses from external distractions, sets the stage for inner exploration (Patanjali, Yoga Sutras). The succeeding stages of Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi involve concentration, meditation, and the ultimate state of profound absorption, facilitating the transcendence of the self and union with the divine (Patanjali, Yoga Sutras).

B.K.S. Iyengar, one of the most influential yoga teachers of the 20th century, often emphasized the transformative power of Ashtanga Yoga in mastering one's emotions. In his book "Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali," Iyengar explores the interconnectedness of the eight limbs and how they can aid in emotional balance. He stressed that the Yamas and Niyamas and the practice of Asanas and Pranayama enable individuals to gain control over their mental states and emotional reactions.

The Pancha Kosha concept, as referenced in ancient Hindu texts like Tattiriya Upanishada and Vivekachudamani, reflects the Yogic philosophy of human existence. It describes five layers surrounding the soul, where the Atman resides at the core. These layers are regarded as the quintessential elements of human personality and growth, functioning as an integrated system. The Kosha system views human existence as a combination of physical and psychological aspects, operating holistically. The outermost, physical layer, Annamaya Kosha or the Food Sheath, signifies our physical body's material aspect, emphasizing the need for physical health and well-being. Moving inward, Pranamaya Kosha, the Vital Energy Sheath, represents the life force that sustains us, promoting the idea of interconnectedness with the world and all living beings. Manomaya Kosha, the Mental Sheath, encompasses thoughts and emotions, forming the narratives that shape our perception of reality. Vijnanamaya Kosha, the Intellectual Sheath, resides beyond the mind, governing intellect, discernment, and wise decision-making. Finally, the innermost layer, Anandamaya Kosha, the Bliss Sheath, is linked to profound joy, spiritual realization, and the wellspring of our deepest passions, creativity, and genuine happiness, often concealed by the other layers. This model offers a holistic understanding of human existence, encompassing the physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual realms. The self or soul is beyond these layers of which these layers represent only an aspect of the Self. Please see the table 1 an in-depth description of each layer and prescribed practices to balance each aspect. Additionally for a visual depiction, please refer to Figure 3.

Table 1. The Pancha kosha model provides a Yogic framework for explaining the 5 distinct layers of the Self ranging from the gross to the subtlest. Engaging in the listed practices can assist in regulating each aspect for optimal health

Psychosomatic theory
Role of Stress in Psychosomatic Conditions

Stress is instrumental to the development and exacerbation of psychosomatic conditions, where psychological factors contribute to physical symptoms. Chronic stress can lead to the overactivation of the body's stress response system, which in turn can manifest as physical symptoms or conditions (Epel et al., 2018). One well-documented example is stress-induced gastrointestinal problems. High levels of stress have been associated with conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), where emotional distress exacerbates gastrointestinal symptoms (Mawdsley & Rampton, 2005). Moreover, stress has been linked to skin conditions, such as psoriasis, through its influence on the immune system and inflammatory responses (Picardi et al., 2006). Psychosomatic conditions highlight the importance of stress management in overall well-being.

Somatization

Somatization is a complex phenomenon in which emotional and psychological distress is expressed through physical symptoms. Stress is a significant contributor to somatization, as individuals may convert their emotional turmoil into physical complaints as a way to cope with their psychological burden (Kirmayer et al., 2011). This process often involves various organ systems and may lead to the development of somatic symptom disorders. The mind-body connection is vividly illustrated in somatization, emphasizing the inseparable link between emotional well-being and physical health (Creed & Barsky, 2004).

Polyvagal theory
Polyvagal theory, developed by Dr. Stephen Porges, is a neurophysiological framework that demonstrates the connection between the autonomic nervous system and our social behaviour. Porges introduced this theory as an extension of the traditional autonomic nervous system model. It emphasizes the role of the vagus nerve, a critical component of the parasympathetic nervous system, in regulating our physiological and psychological responses to various environmental and social cues (Porges, 2007).



One fundamental concept within polyvagal theory is the notion of hierarchical autonomic responses. This theory posits that the autonomic nervous system functions in a hierarchical manner, with three distinct physiological states. The first state is the "ventral vagal" state, associated with social engagement, safety, and connection. It represents the body's ability to engage with others and respond to social cues in a calm and connected manner. The second state is the "sympathetic" state, responsible for mobilization and the classic "fight or flight" response. Finally, the third state is the "dorsal vagal" state, linked to immobilization, shutdown, and disconnection (Porges, 2007). These states are hierarchical in the sense that, when faced with stress or danger, the body will first attempt to engage socially (ventral vagal). If that fails, it will activate the sympathetic state, and if the threat persists or is overwhelming, it will resort to dorsal vagal immobilization.

These states are intimately connected to the mind-body relationship. In the ventral vagal state, the body is primed for social interactions, leading to feelings of safety and trust. In contrast, the sympathetic state readies the body for rapid action and response to stressors, enhancing vigilance and alertness. The dorsal vagal state, associated with immobilization, reflects a disconnection from others and from oneself. Understanding these states within the framework of polyvagal theory provides insights into the mind-body connection and helps us comprehend how physiological responses are tied to emotional and psychological states (Porges, 2007).

Yoga elicits considerable sensory-motor coordination indicating its capacity to shape the core neurological foundations of self-regulation, a proposition substantiated by the research of Collins (2015) and Diamond and Lee (2011). Furthermore, yoga practices consistently highlight an embodiment-centric approach to self-regulation, actively promoting individuals to cultivate awareness of their cognitive, emotional, and somatic experiences. This emphasis on self-awareness fosters the development of robust self-regulatory skills, as substantiated by the findings of Schmalzl et al. (2014). Thus, yoga not only engages the physical and mental aspects of an individual but also serves as a means to enhance their capacity for effective self-regulation.

Neuroplasticity and Hebbian theory
Neuroplasticity is the brain's remarkable ability to rewire and strengthen itself in response to new experiences, and yoga serves as a catalyst for this process. Through regular yoga practice, individuals engage in dynamic cognitive exploration. As they learn new postures, breath control and mindfulness, neuroplasticity ensures that these experiences forge new neural pathways. These new pathways, reinforced with each practice, converge on brain regions responsible for emotional control. Hebbian Theory postulates this fundamental principle as: "cells that fire together wire together." Thus through regular yoga new neural pathways can strengthen regions associated with emotional control. (Brown et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2020)

Conscious Movement and Cortisol Regulation
The conscious movement inherent in yoga serves as a pathway to enhanced awareness of physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions, facilitating the channeling of cognitive resources toward self-regulation. This heightened awareness becomes instrumental in strengthening emotional control and resilience. Additionally, yoga's structured practice actively influences the regulation of cortisol levels, primarily through its meditative and relaxation components. The resultant reduction in cortisol levels serves as the main mechanism in stress reductions and improving the wide-ranging physical and emotional effects of chronic stress. (Jones et al., 2019)

HPA Axis Modulation and Parasympathetic Activation
Yoga modulates the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, promoting a balanced secretion of stress-related hormones. This balanced stress response not only bolsters emotional resilience and facilitates the management of emotional challenges. Additionally, the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, often referred to as the "rest and digest" system, counteracts the "fight or flight" stress response. This activation contributes to emotional stability by promoting relaxation and reducing physiological markers of stress. (Kim et al., 2015; Garcia et al., 2016)

Case studies
A study by Kobylińska et al. (2018) aimed to investigate the influence of the length of yoga training on the use of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and whether personality traits moderate this relationship. It was hypothesized that the connection between yoga practice duration and emotion regulation would be particularly pronounced for individuals with higher conscientiousness and extraversion levels. The study involved 90 women divided into two groups based on their yoga practice duration. The results revealed that participants with longer yoga practice experience reported using cognitive reappraisal more frequently than those with shorter practice. Notably, the beneficial impact of longer yoga practice was more pronounced in individuals with lower levels of conscientiousness and extraversion, suggesting that these personality traits facilitate the benefits derived from yoga practice.

A different study by Daly et al. (2015) focused on adolescents (aged 15-17), a group vulnerable to increased risk-taking and emotional instability. Emotion dysregulation in this age group contributes to various psychosocial difficulties. The research aimed to assess the impact of a yoga intervention, when compared to regular physical education (PE), on the emotion regulation of high school students. It also explored whether mindful attention, self-compassion, and body awareness mediate the relationship between yoga and emotion regulation. The results showed that emotion regulation significantly improved in the yoga group compared to the PE group, emphasizing the potential benefits of yoga for middle adolescents. However, the study did not find a significant connection between changes in emotion regulation and the proposed mediating variables, suggesting that yoga's impact on emotion regulation might occur through other mechanisms not examined in this study.

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“Yoga does not just change the way we see things, it transforms the person who sees.” - B.K.S Iyengar

Conclusion
Yoga presents a unique approach to emotional regulation as an embodied practice that can reduce stress, the root cause of emotion regulation difficulties. As explored, studies providing evidence for neurological models such as Hebbian theory of neuroplasticity, role of conscious movement in cortisol regulation and HPA axis modulation and the activity of the parasympathetic activation highlight Yoga's effectiveness in fortifying emotional control and subsequent improvement in mood disorders. While Yoga as a self regulation tool is indicated to be beneficial for emotional regulation, it is imperative to recognize that continued scientific investigation is essential to further unveil its potential and refine its applications.