Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion

Overview
This tutorial discusses:
 * measurement of emotion
 * Positive and Negative Affect Scale

How can emotion be measured?

 * Behaviour
 * Facial expression
 * Neural activation (e.g., fMRI)
 * Physiological arousal e.g.,
 * Pupil dilation
 * Eye tracking
 * Skin conductance
 * Brain activity (EEG, fMRI)

These methods are quite resource intensive. They are also based on what is externally observable or physiologically scannable. But emotion is also fundamentally phenomenological/subjective. So, another mesurement option is to ask people to introspect and self-report.

Measuring emotion
Emotion can be measured using idiographic (pictorial) tools such as the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM; Bradley & Lang, 1994).

Some commonly used, general self-report measures of emotion used in non-clinical research include:
 * Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) (Wikipedia)
 * Kessler 10 (K-10; nsw.gov.au)
 * Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Wikipedia)
 * Profile of Mood States (POMS) (Wikipedia)

See also: Affect measures (Wikipedia)

PANAS
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson & Clark, 1999) is the most widely used self-report measure in emotion research.

Strengths of the PANAS include:
 * Simplicity – based on 1-word emotion descriptors
 * Factor structure – Short (20-item) and long (60-item) versions
 * Flexibility
 * Temporal framing – from present state to general
 * Domain – General or specific
 * Availability – Free to use

Your profile

 * Complete this short version of the PANAS (20-items; Google Form)
 * Include a code word if you would like to know your individual results

Distributions

 * Examine class distributions for positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA)
 * Compare with USA university norms (see Table 1):
 * PA = 3 to 3.5
 * NA = 1.5 to 2

Table 1

PANAS-20 Positive and Negative Affect Norms

Temporal framing

 * Moment (you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment)
 * Today (you have felt this way today)
 * Past few days (you have felt this way during the past few days)
 * Week (you have felt this way during the past week)
 * Past few weeks (you have felt this way during the past few weeks)
 * Year (you have felt this way during the past year)
 * General (you generally feel this way that is, how you feel on average)

Correlations

 * Correlations between PA and NA range between -.12 (Today) and -.23 (Year) (Watson et al., 1988). The negative correlation indicates that when one dimension is higher the other one tends to be lower, but this relationship is very weak (1% to 5% shared variance). So, it is best to consider PA and NA as independent dimensions of affective experience.
 * Test-retest reliability – how stable is this measure of emotion over time? Based on Watson et al. (1988):
 * PA (ranges between .54 (Moment) and .68 (General)
 * NA (ranges between .45 (Moment) and .71 (General)

Factor structure
There are short (20-item) and long (60-item) versions of the PANAS.


 * Short (20 items; 2 factors; see Table 2)
 * Positive affect (10 items)
 * Negative affect (10 items)

Table 2

PANAS-20 Positive and Negative Affect Items


 * Long (60 items; 11 factors)
 * Basic negative emotions
 * Fear (5 items): afraid, frightened, jittery, nervous, scared, shaky
 * Hostility (6 items): angry, disgusted, hostile, irritable, loathing, scornful
 * Guilt (6 items): angry at self, ashamed, blameworthy, disgusted with self, guilty
 * Sadness (5 items): alone, angry, blue, downhearted, sad
 * Basic positivity emotions
 * Joviality (8 items): cheerful, delighted, energetic, enthusiastic, excited, happy, joyful, lively
 * Self-Assurance (6 items): bold, confident, daring, fearless, proud, strong
 * Attentiveness (5 items): alert, attentive, concentrating, determined
 * Other affective states
 * Shyness (4 items): bashful, sheepish, shy, timid
 * Fatigue (4 items): drowsy, sleepy, sluggish, tired
 * Serenity (3 items): at ease, calm, relaxed
 * Surprise (3 items): amazed, astonished, surprised

Topic development feedback

 * 1) Check the chapter's "discuss" page for written feedback
 * 2) Priorities:
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 * 8) ** Overview should start with a scenario or case study in feature box with an image
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 * 10) ** examples/case studies
 * 11) ** feature boxes
 * 12) ** quizzes etc.
 * 13) Headings:
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 * 17) Overview:
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 * 24) * provide direct links to evidence: View the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and then use this website address as a direct link to evidence for listing on your user page. For more info, see Making and summarising social contributions.

Recording

 * Tutorial 08 (2023)