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Confucius and the Analects
The Analects is a book comprised of a series of sayings, ideas, and morals from the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. Dating back to 6th century BCE, Confucius especially emphasized morality, social relationships, justice, peace, sincerity, and kindness. Within the Analects many ideas were listed, one of the most notable ones being virtue. A figure called the Master gives many teachings and words on the subject of virtue and its importance. Virtue is one of the key terms to take away from the Analects, not only due to the fact that it is mentioned multiple times throughout the books but also due to the fact that it seems to be one of the goals for an individual practicing the ways of Confucianism to truly achieve what they are meant to achieve within their life. The idea of virtue is a concept that has been seen in multiple religions, cultures, and ideologies. It seems every culture has an idea of virtue, and whether or not it has multiple other ideas that stem from it, or its the basic idea of morality every person seems to carry a sense of their own virtue.

Virtue
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, virtue can be defined as: "Conformity to a standard of right; a particular moral excellence. " Within Confucius and the Analects we can see virtue in a similar sense, however, more broadly in relating to the eight cardinal virtues known as: “Zhong” (loyalty), “Xiao” (filial piety), “Ren” (benevolence), “Ai” (affection), “Xin” (trustworthiness), “Yi” (righteousness), “He” (harmony), and “Ping” (peace). Virtue can be seen through other important concepts of Confucius and the Analects, making it a broadly based and an important thing to consider if one truly wants to achieve "moral excellence." The idea of virtue in a greater sense, is how one can achieve moral excellence through all of the eight cardinal virtues. Loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, affection, trustworthiness, righteousness, harmony, and peace can be seen through the multiple books of The Analects. Below there will be a list of some sayings within The Analects that relate to one of the eight cardinal virtues.

Some examples of virtue in a broader sense under within the Analects:

- "Virtue is not solitary. It is bound to have neighbors," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 15)

- "Exalting virtue consists of making loyalty and good faith into one's main principles and moving towards rightness," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 46)

- "Anyone who possesses virtue is bound to possess eloquence, but anyone who possesses eloquence does not necessarily posses virtue," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 54)

- "A fine horse is not praised for his strength, it is praised for its virtue," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 58).

- "Clever words upset virtue. If one is intolerant in minor manors, one upsets major plans," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 62)

Zhong (Loyalty)
Definition: "Unswerving in Allegiance," (Merriam-Webster)

-"if one is loyal and faithful in word and sincere and respectful in deed, then even in barbarian countries one will make progress," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 60)

- "In words he concentrates on loyalty," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 67)

Xiao (Filial Piety)
Definition: "Reverence for parents considered in Chinese ethics the prime virtue and the basis of all right human relations," (Merriam-Webster)

- "Filial Piety and fraternal duty-- surely they are the roots of humaneness," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 3).

- "As far as present day filial piety is concerned, this means being able to provide sustenance," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 6).

Ren (Benevolence)
Definition: "Disposition to do good," (Merriam-Webster)

- "And if one is kind, one is competent to command others," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 70)

- "But our master's wall is several ren high, and if one does not find the gate in it so as to enter, one does not see the beauty of the ancestral temple," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 78)

Ai (Affection)
Definition: "A feeling of liking and caring for someone or something: tender attachment: fondness," (Merriam-Webster)

- "The greatest application of Ren is in the affectionate towards relatives,” (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 5)

Xin (Trustworthiness)
Definition: "Worthy of confidence: Dependable," (Merriam-Webster)

- "Everyday I examine my character in three respects: Am I disloyal in my design for others, am I untrustworthy in my dealings with friends, have I failed to practice what has been passed on to me?" (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 3).

- "In a community of ten households there will certainly be someone as loyal and trustworthy as I am," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 19)

Yi (Righteousness)
Definition: "Acting in accord with divine or moral law : free from guilt or sin," (Merriam-Webster)

- "When good faith is close to righteousness, ones words may be fulfilled," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 4)

-"Righteousness the gentlemen regards as the essential stuff and the rites are his means of putting it into effect," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 62)

He (Harmony)
Definition: "Internal calm," (Merriam-Webster)

- "In the practice of the rites harmony is regarded as the most valuable thing, and in the ways of the ancient kings this is regarded as the most beautiful thing," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 4)

- "For when there is even distribution there is no poverty, and where there is harmony there is no under population," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 65)

Ping (Peace)
Definition: "A state of tranquility or quiet," (Merriam-Webster)

-"The gentleman is calm and peaceful; the small man is always emotional," (Confucius and the Analects, p.g 27)

Instruction of Amenemope and the ancient Egypt concept of Virtue:
The ancient Egyptian's believed the idea of virtue with the idea of Ma'at, who would also resemble a goddess and bestow morality, balance, and justice-- otherwise known as characteristics of having good virtue. Ma'at was overall the ethical and moral principles that the ancient Egyptians would be obliged to follow. A text known as the Instruction of Amenemope shows instances of Ma'at or virtue, residing in the chapters of the text. One can also argue that the overall theme of Ma'at can be seen through the Instruction of Amenemope.

Text Examples

- "If you make your life with these words in your heart, your children will observe them," (Instruction of Amenemope, p.g 150). This quotation demonstrates Ma'at or Virtue by upholding good moral standards and setting an example for one's children. By upholding good morals, you demonstrate the idea of virtue.

- "Set your goodness before people, then you are greeted by all," (Instruction of Amenemope, p.g 153). This quotation demonstrates Ma'at/Virtue through the idea of being good to people, which in a sense is upholding one's morality and keeping in tact the idea of harmony and righteousness when interacting with others.

Plato's Five Dialogues and Greco-Roman Virtue
The ancient Greeks and Romans also had similar ideas involving virtue and how to obtain it within oneself. It is notable that in contrast to Confucius, they only had four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice. A more notable account of virtue can be found within Plato's Five Dialogues: Meno when Socrate's and Meno discuss the concept of virtue.

Summary of Meno

Meno and Socrates debate the question of virtue, and whether or not it can be taught. Socrates admits to Meno that he is not quite sure on the meaning himself, nor is the expert of virtue. Eventually Socrates and Meno work through various potential definitions of virtue, and discuss important concepts such as anamnesis (basically the idea that a soul is eternal, knowledgable, and only has to "recollect" in order to learn) and eventually decide virtue is a type of "wisdom." The two eventually conclude that they are not sure on what the true meaning of virtue is.

Text Examples

Meno: "Can you tell me, Socrates, can virtue be taught? Or is it not teachable but the result of practice, or is it neither of these, but men possess it in nature or in some other way?" (p.g 59)

Socrates: "Good stranger, you must think me happy indeed if you think I know whether virtue can be taught or how it comes to be; I am so far from knowing..." (p.g 60)

Meno: "A man's virtue consists of being able to manage public affairs and in doing so to benefit his friends and harm his enemies and to be careful that no harm comes to himself," (p.g 60)

Socrates: "The same is true in the case of the virtues. Even if they are many and various, all of them have one and the same form which makes them virtues, and it is right to look to this when one is asked to make clear what virtue is." (p.g 61)

Meno: "I think so, Socrates, for justice is virtue." (p.g 62)

Socrates: "This then is virtue according to your argument, the power of securing good things." (p.g 68)

Socrates: "If then virtue is something in the soul and it must be beneficial, it must be knowledge, since all the qualities of the soul are in themselves neither beneficial nor harmful, but accompanied by wisdom or folly they become harmful or beneficial. This argument shows that virtue, being beneficial, must be a kind of wisdom." (p.g 81)