User:Annmarczuk/sandbox

= Introduction =  The ideas of American exceptionalism may be found easily in American presidential rhetoric. Throughout years presidents have presented the United States as the exemplary country with a divine mission, and as the savior and protector of freedom and liberty. One may observe many ideas of American exceptionalism in Kennedy's discourse. The aim of this project is to analyze John F. Kennedy's best-known speeches in terms of rhetorical devices he uses in order to craft the image of America as an exceptional nation. The course contains a general background of American presidential rhetoric and American exceptionalism, a short biography of John F. Kennedy and the analysis of the selected speeches. One may also listen to or watch JFK's speeches. The project is dedicated to users with a knowledge of basic rhetorical terms, and those interested in American presidential discourse.

= American Presidential Rhetoric =

= American Presidential Rhetoric =  The study of American presidential rhetoric is limited mainly to public speeches. The president uses rhetoric to reach various goals, because as Gelderman observes "speeches are the core of modern presidency". Presidential rhetoric is a powerful tool used by the highest ranked person in the country to interpret and define reality.  In the past, presidential speeches were not as frequent a phenomenon as in these days due to the contemporaneous model of leadership and technology. In his studies Ryan L. Teten makes a distinction between the three stages in the evolution of presidential rhetoric:  Until the end of the 19th century the presidents strongly based on deeply rooted traditions, dated back to George Washington and his first presidential speech First inauguration of George Washington in which he referred to the Declaration of Independence and to the Constitution. Back then, the presidents focused on tradition and their role as head of state in their speeches. The major change occurred during the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt and Wilson Woodrow, who are associated with the beginning of the modern presidential rhetoric. Presidents started to deliver their speeches directly to the audience, thus seeking public approval. Furthermore, Woodrow introduced two types of rhetoric:  One may observe the new and emerging concept of the post-modern stage of rhetorical presidency with the personalization of the American Presidency as a leading feature. The aforementioned concept portrays the president not only as a political figure but as a man of his own identity. This idea is realized through the use of much more conversational and colloquial style, less intellectual rhetoric and via conveying elements from the privet life of president. The studies of presidential speeches centre around both the uniqueness of specific themes as well as the existence of the recurrent motifs. American Presidential Rhetoric is steeped in American culture and the history of the United States. As Martin J.Medhurst observes, "rhetoric and history must be studied together, because both are complicated matters that directly impinge upon one another." (Medhurst 2006:6). Therefore, one may say that rhetoric of each president is bound with his attitude to and relationship with the history of the country. He transforms his life and ideas into a powerful public language, which constitutes politics.
 * founding period (1790 - 1825)
 * traditional period (1825 - 1913)
 * modern period that started with Woodrow Wilson and has continued until today.
 * policy speech, whose main aim is to justify political action and president’s policy
 * visionary speech, which creates the future goal and motivates the nation to reach that goal.

= Presidential Rhetoric in Media =



 The development of the mass media has contributed significantly to the rise of the popularity of presidential rhetoric and enabled presidents to reach a national audience. Presidents took advantage of a growing popularity of radio and television to deliver their message to a wider audience. Jackson, F. D. Roosevelt, Kennedy and Obama all efficiently made use of the newspaper, radio, television and the Internet respectively, all of which opened up new opportunities and brought burdens to modern presidency. Live broadcast enabled presidents to address people galore. However, this way of presentation put pressure on the president, who must have been prepared for many unpredictable outcomes of a debate, an interview, or a speech. This approach of a self-presentation focuses primarily on communication and a spoken word. The overall image and charisma of the president becomes more important than presidential rhetoric and the content of a speech. The main purpose is to create the sense of spontaneity through more informal, conversational style and less elaborate, shorter and slogan-like sentences.

= Types of American presidential speeches =

Generally it is believed that the most important speeches emerge during the last, executive season. These are:  The first Inaugural Address was delivered by George Washington in 1789. This tradition has been perpetuated for over 200 years for almost every president has chosen to follow the tradition initiated by Washington. Hence, the Inaugural Address has become anticipated part of Presidential Inauguration. Inaugural Address falls into a distinct genre of presidential rhetoric. One may observe that it is very ceremonial in tone and ritual in character with the main objectives to set the tone of presidency and presidential language, leaving aside the political agenda and to create a message that would craft president as a national leader. President addresses not only the country but also the history, with the main focus on reaffirming the continuity of American democracy. The inaugural address focuses on the celebration of American history and the glorious past of the nation. In the speech various American topoi and commonplaces are mentioned, which emphasizes the inseparability of the present and the past.  It is delivered annually by the president to the Congress. It is formally mandated by the U.S. Constitution, requiring president to present the "state of union" and to provide the Congress with measures that he believes to be expedient. Throughout years it has undergone a few name changes. From 1790 to 1946 it was known as the "Annual Message", then it was referred to as "state of the Union", and since 1947 its official name is the State of the Union Address. The first State of the Union Address was delivered by George Washington in 1790. Originally designed as a means of communication with the Congress, it has became the means of communication between the president and the nation. The development of radio and television contributed significantly to gaining a larger audience. Calvin Coolidge speech was the first to be transmitted via radio and Harry Truman's to be broadcast on television. The State of the Union address is less ceremonial than inaugural address and focuses on the present problems, future goals and specific policy issues. It is steeped in ceremony and tradition. Apart from the common sequence of arguments, in which president presents his views on current affairs and policy recommendations, the State of the Union Address exhibits recurrent themes such as appealing to common traditions, the past and the future.  In crisis rhetoric, president presents himself as a firm leader of the nation, "competent crisis manager" and above all he acts as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He declares that current, critical situation to the United States calls for his decisive action. The problem is elevated from the national to the worldwide level and presented as a threat to world peace. Thus, any decision made by president meets with the approval of the nation. The ethos of president is elaborately crafted and follows the established pattern. First, president presents actions that have been undertaken, justifies his decisions and presents his personal opinion on the matter. Here, he acts as a confident and authoritative leader. Subsequently, president evokes American values and asks for the national unity. By referring to typical commonplaces he emphasizes that nothing has changed and that the current situation has not undermined basic American values. President establishes a strong distinction between good (us) and evil (them).
 * Inaugural Address
 * State of the Union address
 * Crisis Rhetoric

= Ghost-writing =

 As far as presidential rhetoric is concerned, one ought to remember that speeches are usually written by so-called "ghost writers". Most presidents have had their speeches prepared by the employed and professional people. Thus, one needs to bear in mind that the words uttered by president are the words scripted by his professional and influential advisors. The ideas conveyed in speeches may or may not be the real convictions and thoughts of president. Ted Sorensen was a main drafter of Kennedy's speeches.

= References =

Ghost-writing
= John F. Kennedy =



Kennedy's Road to Presidency
 In 1960, when Dwight Eisenhower's presidency was coming to an end, the Democratic party nominated Kennedy as a candidate for the office of President of the U.S. Kennedy's presidential campaign platform was named the "New Frontier", a which was derived from Kennedy's acceptance speech, in which he said that " (...) we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier -- the frontier of the 1960's, the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils, the frontier of unfilled hopes and unfilled threats." (read the whole speech) It was used in reference to Kennedy's domestic programs, whose main objectives were to reduce unemployment, provide better medical care, enhance education of the young people, guarantee civil rights for all Americans, and send a man on the moon. The main slogans that JFK used were "Get America Moving Again" and "To Seek a New Frontier". During the campaign Kennedy's opponents faulted him for his young age, claiming that he is too inexperienced for the office, and his religion, since he was a Roman Catholic in a mostly Protestant country. It was believed that Kennedy would not be able to separate church and state, and he would not act in the best interest of the country.

Debates with Nixon


In 1960 a series of four television debates took place between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon. They began a new era, in which a public image became a key of a successful presidential campaign. It was also the first debate of this kind, thus there were no established patterns to follow. Generally, Kennedy is believed to have benefited more form the debates. He presented himself as a decisive, charismatic and vigorous candidate; he looked straight into the camera after every question, which created a sense of confidence. Nixon, on the other hand, followed the style of a traditional debate and he answered to the questions turning to the journalists, which looked as if he avoided an eye-contact with the audience. Moreover, at that time he was recovering from a knee injury. He also refused to put the make-up on, he was wearing a light suit, which blended with the background. All this made him look very tired and pale. Later, Richard Nixon wrote in his memoir, Six Crises, "I should have remembered that a picture is worth a thousand words".

To read more about the debates click here.

Kennedy's Rhetoric
 On winning the presidential election of 1960, Kennedy had to deal with a number of crises such as the civil rights issue and racial segregation, the tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, and Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba. Kennedy's rhetoric was predominantly shaped by the Cold War. The most characteristic features of his speeches are:
 * short speeches and clauses
 * simplified constructions of sentences and paragraphs - in order to clearly illustrate the main point
 * very frequent use of allusions and antithesis
 * "we and they" dichotomy - Kennedy presented the world that is divided into two opposing parts: the totalitarian state and the democratic part in the West, which promises freedom, justice and equality.
 * the catastrophic vision of the world - he stated that the conflict with the Soviet Union would be hazardous and difficult, and portrayed it as a battle between good and evil. This was emphasized by the use of the apocalyptic language.
 * emphasising an exceptional role of the United States

To read more about JFK click here.

= American Exceptionalism =

 American exceptionalism refers to a widely held belief that the United States has an exceptional position and role in the human history. The term was coined by Alexis de Tocqueville, the French sociologist, who used it for the first time in his Democracy in America, published between 1835 and 1840. The main assumption of this idea is that America has a divine mission of promoting the most basic human rights such as liberty, freedom and democracy. It is generally held that the United States is the moral center of the world and it should serve as an example for other nations.  The beginnings of the idea can be found in Puritan New England. The Puritans claimed that they were chosen by God to be a model for all mankind. John Winthrop, a Puritan leader, in one of his sermons, named this idea as "City Upon a Hill". He urged other colonists to establish a settlement that would become the model for other nations. The American Revolution brought new concepts and ideas to the national exceptionalism. The new ideology was based on egalitariansim, republicanism and individualism. Liberty, equality and the welfare of an average citizen became the priority. Thus, it reinforced the notion of the country as a savior for other nations, spreading the basic values of democracy and freedom.  The exceptionalist ideas have affected greatly the foreign policy of the U.S. It gave rise to the sense of superiority and the need to spread American values around the world and become a leading country. On the other hand, it contributed to the policy of isolationism, whose main reason was to protect the country from inferior foreigners. America - a City Upon A Hill and a Chosen Nation <p style = "text-align: justify"> The city-upon-a-hill myth is believed to be a foundational myth of America. In 1630 a thousand Puritans set sail to America with a great vision. In his sermon delivered abroad the Arbella ship, which headed to the New World, John Winthrop, the governor of the Company of the Massachusetts Bay, stated:

<p style = "text-align: justify">Winthrop aimed to create the community of New England that would become a model for other nations, a New Jerusalem. The New England Puritans believed not only that they set out on a journey to establish a new colony, but also that they embarked on a significant moral mission to provide an example to the whole world and become a spiritual model for others. Winthrop spurred on his fellow passengers to found a community worth emulating, an exemplary city that would always be visible and inspiring for the world. <p style = "text-align: justify"> The myth of America as a chosen nation emerged from the belief in the divine providence and the American's nation closeness to God. The main foundation of this myth is the assumption that God chose American people out of all other nations for an exceptional mission. It has its roots in the colonial period, similarly as A City Upon a Hill. The idea of America as a promised land and an exceptional place of vast opportunities was very popular amongst the colonial leaders, who believed to be elected by God to restore his kingdom on earth. When colonists came to America, the world became divided into two hemispheres: the Old World and the New one with the new hopes, desires and ideals. The American nation was envisioned as the nation chosen by God to set an example for the corrupted Old World and its institutions. The American people felt the urge to fulfill their destiny and to spread the principal values of liberty with less-favored peoples of the continent, as well as with the rest of humanity. <p style = "text-align: justify"> During the Founding Era the new concept of the American mission emerged. The Declaration, saying that:

<p style = "text-align: justify">strengthened the significance of the natural and God-given laws and rights, and created the sense of duty to spread these values around the globe. Shortly after the enactment of the American constitution, the aforementioned ideals became the creed of the American nation. The creators of a new republic, especially Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, became elevated to Founding Fathers. Moreover, the latter was compared to Moses, someone who parted the sea, restored people's faith, battled for his people, and brought new ideals and action to a suffering nation.



<p style = "text-align: justify"> The idea of the country that everyone looks up to may be found in the elements of everyday life, such as the symbolism of the United States one-dollar bill, in the "Pledge of Allegiance" or in the cult of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Novus Ordo Seclorum, "New Order of the Ages", the inscription that appears on the Great Seal of the United States, refers to the new era that began with the American zeal to introduce a new world order. It is related to a missionary character of the United States. The motto "In God We Trust" along with the "Pledge of Allegiance", which contains the phrase "under God", on the other hand, perfectly illustrates the idea of America as a chosen nation. <p style="font-size:18px"> See also


 * American exceptionalism
 * Manifest Destiny
 * City upon a Hill
 * American civil religion
 * Empire of Liberty
 * Symbols on American Money

= Analysis of the Selected Speeches =

Inaugural Address
General Information

<p style = "text-align: justify"> John F. Kennedy delivered his Inaugural Address on January 20, 1961 at the Capitol Plaza in Washington D.C., after being sworn in as president. The audience for this speech was very diversifies, which posed certain difficulties for the speaker: he had to address not only the officials and people gathered in the plaza, but also those who watched and listened to him on the radio and television. Moreover, Kennedy was aware that his words would reach thousands of people overseas, who would read the speech in the newspapers. Hence, the audience had to be analyzed to divde the speech into separate fragments targeted at different audiences.

Ted Sorensen, the main drafter of the speech, remarks:

"No Kennedy speech underwent so many drafts. Each paragraph was reworded, rewoked and reduced. (...) He [Kennedy] wanted suggestions from everyone. He wanted it short. He wanted it focused on foreign policy. He did not want it to sound partisan, pessimistic or critical of his predecessor. He wanted neither customary cold war rhetoric about the Communist menace nor any weasel words that Krushchev might misinterpret. And he wanted to set a tone for the era about to begin."

- Ted Sorensen

Read more about the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy



Analysis

Click here to read the speech.

<p style = "text-align: justify"> In his Inaugural Address Kennedy frequently refers to the grand American ideals by recalling American history, notably the American Revolution, to present a significant place of the United States in the past, and its obligation in the present. It is affirmed that democracy is not something given but rarther fought for, and it is a duty of the American nation to uphold it. The American people are portrayed as the propagators of liberty, whose responisibility is to restore freedom to the world. At the beginning of the speech Kennedy calls his victory "a celebration of freedom", which alludes to the famous phrase "a new birth of freedom", used by Abraham Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address. He repeatedly evokes American history saying "(...) the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe - the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God.". By referring to the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence, Kennedy implies that the ideals, which the Founding Fathers fought for, still need to be spread across the world, and it is the American nation who is obliged to promote freedom, democracy and liberty. Kennedy directly states that these rights "come from the hand of God", which suggests that the American people were given those rights as an exceptional nation chosen by God. Kennedy uses anithesis to emphasize the difference between the rights granted by the state, especially the rules established by the communist state, and the rights of man that come from God. Moreover, "his statement reveals a certain hierarchy, since the rights of man are given by God and cannot be granted by the state." In the next fragment Kennedy names the Americans of the present generation as the "heirs of that first revolution". The American nation not only should be proud of its glorious hisotry, but also each generation should recognize the responsibilty that is left to them. Since "the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans - born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage" they have to sacrifice for a greater purpose. Kennedy's statement "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear and burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty." is a definite promise to preserve democracy. He reveals the missionary character of America pledging to help all those countries which fight to maintain freedom. The antithetical construction reinforces the imagery of the dichotomous division of the world: the spehere where "subversion" and "aggresion" dominates, which is represented by the Soviet Union, and the world of democracy and liberty, represented by the United States. According to Kennedy, the United States is a morally superior country, which is ready to stand up against the communists acts of aggresion that pose a threat to the world peace. In the fragment "All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first thousand years, nor in the lifetime of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." Kennedy explicitly states that this mission requires time and commitment of not only present generation but also the future ones. He uses a metaphor, "trumpet summons us again (...) to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle (...) - a struggle against common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease and war itself.", to create an image of the country that is in the middle of a battle between totalitarianism and freedom, emphasizing the exceptional position of the United States, that will secure the bright future of the whole humanity. Throughout the speech Kennedy suggests that the American nation has been chosen to uphold the fundamental human rights, "thereby giving them [Americans] the opportunity to prove that they can fulfill the American mission." Kennedy presents himself as a dutiful citizen of the United States stating that "In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from responsibility - I welcome it". Moreover, it can be inferred that it is a trial for the American people mady by God so that they could show they are capable of fulfilling their mission.

Rhetorical devices

"City Upon a Hill"
Click here to read and listen to the speech.

Analysis

<p style = "text-align: justify"> Before taking the oath of office, John F. Kennedy came to Massachusetts, his homeland state, on January 9, 1961 to deliver a speech. Although Kennedy claimed that "I am not here to bid farewell to Massachusetts", "The City Upon a Hill" contains elements characteristic of a farewell speech; the meditiation on the past actions, reflections on the future and the indication of a change. Kennedy begins with reflecting on his political career and ackonwledgment of the role of Massachusetts in his life, then he moves on to more general relfections. It may be noticed that Kennedy strongly identifies with the Massachusetts community, to which he is "deeply indebted for a lifetime of friendship and trust." He establishes his ethos as a devoted patriot, faithful to the society that he owes so much. He acknowledges a crucial role of Massachusetts in the formation and development of the democratic institutions and principles. He reverses the basic assumption of the American exceptionalism, according to which the United States is a country that sets an example for other nations, and portrays Massachusetts as a city upon a hill and a model state for the whole country. "Its [Massachusetts] leaders have shaped our destiny long before the great republic was born. Its principles have guided our footsteps in time of crisis as well as in times of calm. Its democratic institutions (...) have served as beacon lights for other nations as well as our sister states." In such a way Kennedy makes a microcosm of Massachusetts and macrocosm of the United States. In the speech Kennedy repeatedly draws parallels to John Winthrop. He compares himself to a famous leader, who also "faced the task of buliding a new government on a perilous frontier". Kennedy hopes that the four fundamental qualties that characterized Massachusetts (courage, judgment, integrity and dedication) will characterize his government, which be like a metaphorical city upon a hill. He revokes the most famous part of Winthrop's sermon saying that "the eyes of all people are upon us". In this way he reminds his audience that they have a great responsibility of setting an example for other nations. Kennedy uses the metaphor of a voyage that the American nation is to set out, and creates a link between the Puritans, who sailed across the Atlantic, stating that it is "no less hazardous than that undertaken by the Arabella in 1630." Kennedy also uses the imagery of light, which usually is used to make contrast between two antagonistic forces (e.g. good and evil, love and hate). His aim is to present Massachusetts, that used to be "beacon lights", as the enlightened place among the world submerged in darkness. Moreover, light is frequently associated with God, thus it suggests that American law is the divine law and the American principal values are the only true values.

Rhetorical devices

Fourth of July Speech 1962
<p style = "text-align: justify"> On July 4, 1962 president John F. Kennedy commemorated Independence Day by delivering the speech at the Independence Hall in Philadelphia, the place where the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 and where the U.S. Constitution was created in 1787. The Fourth of July Speech is classified among ritual speeches, "though not always listed among the major speeches and mostly regarded as a minor speech." In his speech Kennedy praises the American democracy, evoking the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution and their enduring relevance, and celebrates the national symbols and notable historical figures. Moreover, he declares the American assistance for the emerging European community devoted to freedom and unity. He mainly uses inspirational and motivational rhetoric by recalling the grand ideas and basic principles according to which the free states were created. From the beginning of the speech Kennedy establishes his relationship with the history of the United States, and evokes one of the most important events in the history of the American nation, namely signing the Declaration of Independence:

<p style = "text-align: justify">Kennedy emphasizes the obligation of each American to fulfill and commit to the task initiated by their ancestors and the Founding Fathers. He implies that it is the American people's as well as his duty to stand in defense of freedom all over the world. By pointing out that the Declaration of Independence was a document of bold and the "final irrevocable decision", Kennedy highlights that it was the American people who gave birth to the independent nation and decolonization, along with inspiring and setting an example for other communities. What is more, the president notices that the ideas included in the Declaration still reflect the fundamental American values. <p style = "text-align: justify">The passage "To read it today is to hear a trumpet call." clearly alludes to Kennedy's Inaugural Address, in which he stated that "(...) the trumpet summons us again." He uses the warlike imagery of a trumpet, which calls soldiers to battle, and correlates it with the metaphorical battle of the American nation against "worldwide implications". It is explicitly stated that the American people were chosen to spread liberty and self-government, and that a "revolution in human affairs" has been in their hands. The authors of the Declaration are said to have been conscious that the undertaken mission had much more larger scope. The revolution was supposed to start in the United States and spread to each corner of the world. Kennedy refers to this mission as a "prophecy", which reinforces the sense of the destiny of the American nation, since the word is associated with an inspired prediction of the future, very often perceived as a revelation of divine will. Thus, the president evokes the mission which Americans are to accomplish, and their obligation to promote the national independence. Moreover, Kennedy contrasts the United States with other countries: <p style = "text-align: justify"> Apart from referring to the Declaration Kennedy recalls the Constitution. He notices that the document "(...) stresses not independence but interdependence - not the individual liberty of one but the indivisible liberty of all." Kennedy observes that the international partnership should be based on the union of all free men. He is aware that "(...) this will not be completed in a year, but let the world know it is our goal." Once again, this words echo the ones used in the Inaugural Address, in which Kennedy says: "All this will not be finished in the first hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." Thereby, it is implied that this mission cannot be accomplished presently, but it requires time, patience and the wholehearted dedication. The following words constitute the manifesto of the American nation:

<p style = "text-align: justify"> Toward the end of the speech Kennedy mentions Abraham Lincoln, who also glorified the authors of the Declaration of Independence, in order to support his call for bringing equality in the world. Through the words of Lincoln Kennedy asks the American nation to have hope and to strongly believe that one day the ideals which inspired the Founding Fathers will be spread across the world. Kennedy pledges to "do our part to lift weights from the shoulders of all, to join other men and nations in preserving both peace and freedom, and to regard any threat to the peace or freedom of one as a threat to the peace and freedom of all." Hence, he presents the American nation as the nation utterly dedicated to the cause, and ready to fight for the basic laws of every man. Kennedy ends his vow with the formal oath from the last fragment of the Declaration of Independence. <p style = "text-align: justify"> The speech bears certain similarity to Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address in a way it is structured. Kennedy uses the triadic time structure while referring to the past, the present and the future. He reminisces about the time when the Republic was created, subsequently returns to the contemporary times and then presents the objectives for the future. The address celebrates American history, the American ideals, and expresses the belief in the universality of the American creed. <p style = "text-align: justify"> In his address Kennedy creates the ethos of a true and devoted patriot, who is aware of his heritage and the duty to the country and to all humanity. He provides the audience with the explanation why the role of the American mission is so important, and why they ought to fully commit to achieving the goal by propagating liberty, equality and democracy. However, one ought to remember that the speech was delivered during the Cold War. The uneasy political situation made Kennedy to depict the American people as a bold and determined nation.

= Task =

The first part

{ "Yesterday, the Japanese government also launched an attack against Malaya. Last night, Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong. Last night, Japanese forces attacked Guam. Last night, Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. Last night, the Japanese attacked Wake Island. And this morning, the Japanese attacked Midway Island." (Franklin Roosevelt, Pearl Harbor Address) { anaphora }.
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{ “Can anyone look at our reduced standing in the world today and say, ‘Let's have four more years of this’? (Ronald Reagan, 1980 RNC Acceptance Address) { rhetorical question }.
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{ "But there are many mountains yet to climb. We will not rest until every American enjoys the fullness of freedom, dignity, and opportunity as our birthright." (Ronald Reagan, Inaugural Address) { metaphor }.
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{ "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." (Johm F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address) { chiasmus }
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Quiz {"Yes, we can heal this nation. Yes, we can repair this world." (Barack Obama, New Hampshire Primary Speech) + anaphora - antithesis - logos
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{"This evening, Michelle and I will do what I know every parent in America will do, which is hug our children a little tighter, and we'll tell them that we love them, and we'll remind each other how deeply we love one another." (Barack Obama on the Shooting in Connecticut) - pathos + ethos - logos
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{"But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation." (Martin Luther King, I have a dream) - chiasmus - oxymoron + metaphor
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{"Somewhere at this very moment a child is being born in America. Let it be our cause to give that child a happy home, a healthy family, and a hopeful future." (Bill Clinton, 1992 DNC Acceptance Address) - ethos + alliteration - metaphor
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{""We observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom, symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change." (John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address) + antithesis - pathos - anaphora
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= References =