User:AriWright

 E-Portfolio: Motivation and Emotion 



Week One: Introduction
When I first started this unit I was really excited too start formulating my own idea to what is motivation, and what is emotion. On reflection, in year 12 I was involved in a Psychology class, and I was intrigued by one simple question- Why do people behave the way they do, and why do they do ‘bad’ things? ? Due to this early passion for not only psychology, but also for motivation, I am excited to begin this unit and learn the crux of what this is. So what is Motivation and Emotion?

There are two questions that best explain what scientists/researchers look at when studying motivation and emotion. 1. What causes behaviour? 2. Why does behaviour vary in its intensity? Now I have long pondered individual’s motivation to behave certain ways, and I never thought of the intensity of the behaviour, and how motivation affects this. Furthermore, it is interesting to look at how this behaviour changes in frequency from one day to the next.

So a definition of motivation...

The study of motivation concerns the porcesses that give behaviour its energy and direction.

A definition of emotion....

Emotions are short lived subjective-physiological-functional-expressive phenomena that orchestrate how we react to the events in our lives.

How does motivation relate to behaviour?

There are eight aspects of behaviour that express the presence and intensity of motivation: attention, effort, latecy, persistence, choice, probability of response, facial expressions and bodily gestures.

Themes of motivation

-	Motivation benefits adaptation -	Motives direct attention and prepare action -	Motives vary over time and influence the ongoing stream of behaviour -	Types of motives exist (what are they) -	Motivation includes both approach and avoidance tendencies “ the greater the irritation the greater the change”- compare to residents at work -	Motivation study reveals what people want -	To flourish motivation needs supportive conditions -	There is nothing so practical as a good theory

History The intellectual roots of motivation have their origins in Ancient Greece, through Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. It was proposed that motivation flowed from a three part, heirarchly arranged soul (mind). At the primitive level, drives were bodily appetites; the competitive aspect focused on socially derived standards; with the highest level- the calculating aspect contributed to decision making qualities in the individual.

100 or so years later, this three part model was reduced to dualism- the passions of the body and the reason of the mind. In the post-renaissance era, Descartes proposed a ‘Grand theory” based on will that proposed that we can understand motivation if we understand the underlying will through, choosing, striving and resisting. Unfortunately after two centuries of philosophical analysis it yielded disappointing results though.

Charles Darwin through biological determinism introduced questions such as how animals use their resources (motivation) to adapt to the environment. For Darwin, most behaviours in animals appeared to unlearned and automatic- and to explain this prewired behaviour he proposed instinct. What arose from this was an explanation that managed to explain where the motivational force came from to begin with. Although, just as will was cast aside, so was instinct as it was unable to explain complex human behaviours- it was subsequently replaced by drive. Freud’s drive theory believed that all behaviour was motivated and that the purpose was to serve the satisfaction of needs. His drive theory had 4 components; source, impetus, aim and object. Despite the creativity of this theory though, there were many criticisms. Hull’s drive theory had a purely biological basis, with bodily need being the ultimate source of motivation. It did have one different characteristic though- in his theory, Hull believed that motivation could ultimately predict behaviour also. Drive as an energiser, not a guide.

After the 1950s and through to the 70s, there was a rise in many min-theories, that chose to try and explain a certain aspect of motivational theory. There are many min-theories, and too many t go through now- yet they will probably be discussed though the unit. By the end of the 1970s motivation theory was on the brink of extinction. Yet through the 21st century, motivation study has been populated by many multiple perspectives or mini theories through a scattering of use of other fields and shared ideas.

Afterthoughts on Introduction and week one

Initially I believed a study of emotion and motivation would be a straight forward subject without complexity. Through this first chapter it becomes quite apparent that it is complex and multifaceted. This unit is making me question my own motivations and behaviours and compare them to the theoretical knowledge. It is quite fascinating!

Week Two: Assessment Tasks
Since reading the Unit Outline for this unit, and looking at the expectation of Information and Technology Knowledge, I was worried, as I do not consider myself technologically savvy. Through Week 2 though, we were guided through what the assessment tasks were and helped to understand what technology we would be using, and how to use it. I had previously used a Wiki (although briefly) in one of my other units, yet I had never had a unit be very heavily reliant on this ideal. Through the lecture and guided help from the lecturer I have learnt the basics as to what will be expected of us in this unit with the technology. I am still slightly concerned about being able to do the 5 minute video that will be accompanying the textbook chapter, but hopefully later in the unit I will feel more comfortable doing this. I am also worried about using images/videos, as the copyright information is something I have never dealt with before!

I find the way this unit is being offered in a really helpful way in regards to the way it helps us ‘deeply process’ the information, and although I am still struggling with the finer points of creating a wiki, and how to edit- I am ultimately excited about learning a new way of information share- and even of getting our textbook potentially printed!

Week Three: The Brain and Physiological Needs
The brain is the center of motivation and emotion. It generates craving, needs, desires, pleasure and the full range of emotion.

As the brain performs its functions, it cares not only about the task that you are doing   (using cognitive intellectual functions), but it also cares whether you want to do it (motivated brain) and what your mood is while you are doing it (emotional brain). To understand brain based motivational structures, researchers look at three key areas. 1. mapping out which brain structures are associated with which specific motivational states. 2. Investigating how the brain structures that are associated become activated. 3. Understanding how day to day events in people’s lives create this activation process.

Inside the Brain
Researchers look inside the brain in two ways. The first is by a surgeon, the second is on through technology with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They key limbic brain structures include the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, septal area, ventral tegmental area and the fibers that connect these structures into a communication network. The cerebral cortex is also related to motivation, as thinking itself can be a motivation.

The following table highlights the key motivational and emotional role played by approach, avoidance and arousal related structures in the brain.

The above table courtesy of Reeve (2009), pp 54.

I have an interest in the amygdala- due to what happens when it is damaged. The amygdala regulates emotions involved in self preservation, fear, anxiety and anger. Impairment of the amygdala creates; overall tameness, affective neutrality, a lack of emotional responsiveness, preference for social isolation, willingness to approach previously frightening stimuli and so on. This is interesting, as I have begun to research psychological disorders and motivation and emotions role in them- and have looked into antisocial personality disorder. What I gave found so far is brain scans of those with ‘psychopathy’, personality disorders and or antisocial personality disorder do not respond the same as the control subjects. What I have found in the research is that the subjects diagnosed have less of an emotional response to horrific images and shock. With this lower affect, researchers have concluded this may be one reasons for antisocial behavior... so interesting!

Neurotransmitters and the brain

There are four relevant neurotransmitters that effects motivation and emotion. 1. Dopamine, 2. Serotonin. 3. Norepinephrine. 4. Endorphin. Dopamine release generates good feelings, as we go about our days, there is always dopamine present in the brain. When a person anticipates pleasure, this triggers a release of neurons in the dopamine pathway; this can create enhanced creativity and functioning. Incentives- stimuli that foreshadow the imminent delivery of rewards- trigger dopamine release in the brain. I.e. when you smell someone baking cookies in the oven, this simulates a release of dopamine- you do not need to actually eat them. This makes me wonder if conditioning would also effect dopamine release when paired with previously exposed to stimuli? If for example, smelling a pleasent smell that was paired with a memory of a happy event- would this also stimulate the release of dopamine?

How and why do antidepressant drugs alleviate depression?

I am interested in how pharmacology affects mental disorders, as the discovery of such pathways have reformulated the way psychology and psychaitry are viewed by the world since the 'medication revolution!' Depression is a complex psychological disorder associated with two main responses from the environment. Environmental stresses gradually rob our brains of serotonin, with this deficiency leaving us vulnerable to depression. When this occurs SSRI’s or serotonin reuptake inhibitors (a form of antidepressant) work on the serotonin pathways by increasing brain-serotonin transmission and turnover and preventing reuptake and making greater use of the available serotonin. The second type of depression is associated with a diminished capacity to experience pleasure and positive feelings. Low dopamine levels leave the person feeling apathy, boredom, poor concentration etc. Some anti depressants work by increasing dopamine receptors responsiveness, restoring the person’s ability to feel pleasure. I find all explanations of how these medications work fascinating as the subjective experience of apathy or vulnerability to depression is elusive to me as I have never experienced it- so having this diminsished capacity for joy aided by an antidepressent is fascinating- even though it is common place in society (one could say almost too common).

Motivation also cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embedded, which reminds me of the nature nurture debate that creates such a passion in so many students.

Physiological Needs
A need is a condition within the person that is essential and necessary for life, growth, and well being. When these are satisfied, well being is maintained- yet if they are not satisfied it can disrupt psychological and biological well being. Motivational states then provide the incentive to act on the need. Physiological needs involve biological systems that when unmet for a prolonged period of time can crate medical emergencies and dominate our conscious thought. The body and mind have a fundamental need for regulation, and when we do this, it creates motivation to create homeostasis, or equilibrium in the body. When our bodies have had enough of what they need, our body has a negative feedback system that then stops us after our need has been quenched. For example, once we have eaten enough, our stomach will tell us it is full. The intraorganismic mechanism in the body includes all the biological regulatory systems that act to activate, maintain and terminate physiological needs. Our brain, endocrine system (glucose) and bodily organs (kidney, stomach) are the main categories of this. Extraorganismic mechanisms include all environmental influences that play a part in activation and maintaining our homeostasis. I have alsways been fascinated by what occurs when there is a frustration amongst satsifying physiological needs. In developing countries, where survival is often the only need that can be accomplished, and depression and mental disorders are almost non-existent as the people (such as in Ethiopia) struggle to eat, stay safe and survive.

Failures to Self regulate Physiological Needs

People fail to self regulate for three reasons; underestimate how powerful biological urges can be. Second, people lack standards and have inappropriate ideals, such as body size. Thirdly, people fail at self regulation as they fail to monitor what they are doing as they become distracted, preoccupied or overwhelmed- alcohol for instance reduces self awareness and we do things we would not always do. What I wonder is how would a disorder like bulimia or anorexia nervosa compare to the failure to self regulate? Do we class the motivation to starve oneself as this failure, or as something else?

I will now have a look at two basic needs which interest me as they are imperative to physical survival of human beings.

Thirst Thirst is an important physiological need. Our bodies are two-thirds water, and thirst is a consciously experienced motivational state that readies us to quench our water deficit. Thirst arises as a physiological need as our bodies are always loosing water- through perspiration, urination, bleeding vomiting etc. Without replenishment of water, most people would die within 2 days. The most environmental influence to drink is taste. Drinking behavior changes the incentive when taste is added to the liquid. Due to this, people tend to over consume sweet liquids. Yet there are also other liquids, like coffee, tea, and alcohol. Drinking then occurs for three main reasons; water replenishment, sweet taste, and an attraction to or addiction to the substance that is in the water. What I find interesting about thirst, is when people consume alchohol that are becoming more thirsty as they consume it, and satisfy this thirst with more alchohol- even though it is a diuretic!

Hunger Hunger is complex. Food deprivation activates hunger and eating, yet hunger relies on short term daily processes, and longer term processes. It is further affected by cognitive, social and environmental influences. Our short term appetite initiates meals, the size of meals, and the termination of meals. When our cells require glucose, the incentive to eat begins. Yet, appetite can rise and fall due to other cues such as, mouth, body temperature and stomach distentions. Our long term energy balance is managed by our fat stores in fat cells. What role does the brain play then on eating disorders?? There are also environmental influences to hunger such as; time of day, stress, sight, smell, appearance and taste of food. Eating behavior increases when there is a variety of foods, tastes and nutrients. Eating is also a social occasion, when in the company of others people eat more and for longer periods of time. I also beleieve an important environmental influence should be on the actual access a person has to food- is there food in there house, town, country- can they afford it?

Afterthoughts after Week 3 I have often found reading about the brain and its macro and micro structures challenging as I struggle to understand or be able to reflect on how and why this transfers into behaviour, emotion, feeling, motivation etc. Through this past week I have found I appreciate the study of the brain and all of the 'hidden' human processes slightly easier.

At my work at a youth refuge I come across self harm or self injury quite often with the young clients. I am interested in what role the brain, neurotransmitters and the possible release of dopamine has in the often reported feelings of 'euphoria' or release after the actual act of self harm. I also wonder about the almost addictive qualities of self harm, and whether the brain has pathways, just like the nicotine receptors for smoking, that light up and respond during the self harm. This is reminding me that I must look into this- also the motivational and emotionally qualities of such behaviours.

In addition to this, I am interested in the processes that occur when someone is intentionally neglected and deprived on their basic needs- and what structures in the brain are blunted or underdeveloped due to this.

Psychological Needs
When an activity involves our psychological needs we are interested. So to satisfy psychological needs is to engage our environment to satisfy the psychological need. Yet can we feel psychological needs if our basic needs are not satisfied, per Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs???



Autonomy

We want to be the one that says when, where, why, how etc. We want freedom to construct our own goals, and to decide what is importunate and what is not worth our time. So we have a need for autonomy. Autonomy= the need to experience self direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation if ones behavior. Three experiences create the subjective experience of autonomy; Perceived locus of causality= refers to an individuals understanding of the causal choice of his or her motivated actions. Volition= un-pressed willingness to engage in activity Perceived choice= refers to the sense of choice we experience when we find ourselves in environments that provide us with decision making flexibility that affords us many opportunities form which we choose.

Supporting autonomy= external events, environments, social contexts and relationships vary in how much they support a persons autonomy. Some environments nurture it, while others frustrate it. For example controlling environments- not allowing someone to feel autonomous in the environment. This reminds me of the debate today of the Burka. I beleieve that by telling a woman that she cannot wear a Burka is taking away part of her autonomy and choice!

Autonomy supportive motivation style= involves the persons willingness to take on the other persons perspective and to value personal growth activities. Examples; relying on flexible language, proving explanatory rationales, acknowledging and accepting the others expressions of negative affect.

Controlling Motivating style= When one person pressures another toward a prescribed outcome and uses social influence to achieve targeted socialization outcome ( i.e. telling someone not to wear a burka).

•	Although being highly controlling and highly supportive works on a continuum.

Relatedness

The desire for relationships with individuals extends to relationships with groups, organizations, and communities. We have a need for relatedness. It is the need to have close emotional bonds and attachments to others, and reflects the desire to be emotionally connected to and interpersonally involved in warm relationships. So, we gravitate towards people who foster this, and move away from those we don’t trust.

Relationships that do not involve caring, liking accepting and valuing do not satisfy relatedness. People who are lonely do not lack frequent social contact- they interact with others; they just lack intimate meaningful relationships. Is this then true of social anxiety disorder?

Social Needs
Social need= an acquired psychological process that grows out of one’s socialization history that activates emotional responses to a particular need-relevant incentive

Quasi-needs= situationally induced wants and desires that are not actually full-blown needs in the same sense as psychological ones. For example- day to day quasi needs; money, job, approval, shopping; these needs can have a sense of urgency about them that can dominate our consciousness. Quasi needs arrive from situational needs and pressures.

Social needs= Achievement, affiliation, intimacy and power.

How they motivate behavior

Social needs arise and activate emotional and behavioral potential when incentives appear. Social needs are mostly reactive in nature. They lie dormant within us until we encounter a potentially need-satisfying incentive that brings the social need to the front of our attention in terms of thinking, feeling and behaving. Achievement

Motivates people to succeed in a competition of excellence. Origins of the need for achievement- social origins, cognitive influences and developmental influences.

Conditions that Involve and satisfy the need for achievement

Moderately difficult tasks= these tasks provide an appropriate arena for best testing skills and experiencing emotion such as pride and satisfaction. Competition= Interpersonal competition captures the mistaking dilemma inherent in achievement settings.

Much of achievement it approach oriented behaviors – such as what I have found in antis social personality disorder. Yet there is also avoidance motivation.

Avoidance motivation and wellbeing

The fear of failure drives people to regulate their behavior in all sorts of ways that interfere with performance, persistence and emotionality. The fear of failure prompts people to adopt performance avoidance goals, such as trying to avoid a mistake. These avoidance oriented goals lead people to underperform, quit quickly and loose interest in what they are doing.

This relationship – (fear of failure= performance avoidance goals= maladjusted coping style in achievement settings) has important implications for mental health. The more people fear failure, the more likely they are to adopt performance avoidance goals.

Affiliation and intimacy

The need for affiliation is rooted in the fear of interpersonal rejection. The intimacy motive reflects a concern for the quality of ones own social involvement.

Conditions that involve the affiliation and intimacy needs The principal condition that involves the need for affiliation is the deprivation form social interaction. Conditions such as loneliness, rejection and separation raise peoples desire or social need to be with others- so this creates a deficiency- orientated motive.

Fear and anxiety= social isolation and fear arousing conditions are two situations that increase a persons desire to affiliate with others.

Establishing Interpersonal Networks= peopl with a high need for intimacy typically join social groups, spend time interacting with others and create stable long term friendships.

Power

The essence of the need for power is the desire to make the physical and social world conform to ones own personal image or plan for it. People high in the need for power have a desire to “impact, control, or influence another person, group or the world at large”.

Impact= allows power needing people to establish power

Control= allows power needing people to maintain power

Influence= allows per needing people to expand or restore power.

Such power needs centre around a need for dominance, reputation, status or position.

Conditions that Involve and Satisfy the need for power. Leadership and relationships= People with high need for power seek recognition in groups and find ways for making themselves visible to others to establish influence. In dating relationships, high power men generally make poor husbands- power/control= abuse.

Aggressiveness= the relationship between power and aggression sees these people are more likely to have arguments and participate more frequently in competitive sports. Societal inhibitions largely constrain the power seeking persons expression of aggression. Alcohol is one socially acceptable means to social inhibition, and power seeking men do indeed act more aggressive when drinking. As such. The men with the highest need for power drink the most.

Influential occupations= People high in the need for power seek out such professions like; executives, journalists, clergy, business executives etc.

Afterthoughts on Week 4

I am fascinated by a persons pychological and social needs. There is such a complex system that feeds the individual to have their needs met and to meet the needs of the environment. I am particularly interested in situations where psychological and social needs are not met which foster violence towards other individuals or the community. For example; the shooting spree that Martin Bryant went on is theorised to be due to his isolation and inability to form relationships with others and the communiyt- this then festered into a 'hate' for this community. Unfortunatley leading to the death of many innocent victims.

What also interests me are the attachments of young children and teenagers to the adults in their lives and how this affects the role thier psychological and social needs will have in their development. For example, a young teenage woman who was sourounded by strict religious dichotmy and abuse will view their psychological and social needs quite differently than somone who grew up in a houshold with two parents and siblings in a 'normal' family.

Intrinsic Motivation
Is the inherent propensity to engage ones interests and to exercise ones capacities and in doing so, to seek out and master optimal challenges. It emerges for psychological needs and innate strivings for growth. When people are intrinsically motivated they act of interest, and for the sense of challenging the activity at hand. People experience intrinsic motivation because they have psychological needs within themselves. When these needs are nurtures and supported they give rise to psychological satisfaction. I believe that much of my wanting to be a psychologist was built on strong intrinsic motivation.

What is so great about intrinsic motivation?

Persistence= The higher a persons intrinsic motivation, the greater their persistence will be on that task.

Creativity= Creativity is typically enhanced by intrinsic motivation.

Conceptual Understanding/High Quality Learning= intrinsic motivation enhances a learners conceptual understanding of what they are trying to learn. When it is high, it promotes flexibility in ones way of thinking.

Optimal functioning and Well being= pursuing intrinsic goals leads to better functioning and higher psychological wellbeing than does pursuing extrinsic goals.

I really enjoy teaching the young people at my work about forms of intrinsic motivation- as i often find that this appears to create more of an ability for them to keep up consistency in ther studies- as often they are not used to the extrinsic motives for behavour- and if they are it is negative modelling.

Extrinsic Motivation
Arises from environmental incentives and consequences, such as food, money, praise, attention, stickers, gold stars, tokens, approval, scholarships, candy, certificates, smile’s public recognition, prizes etc. Instead of engaging in activity that has inherent satisfaction (intrinsic motivation) extrinsic motivation arise form some consequence that is separate from he activity itself. Because we desire to gain attractive consequences (certificate) and to avoid unattractive consequences (fail grade), creates within us the incentive to strive for motivational incentives that produce favorable consequences of our behavior. Arises from a kind of behavioral contract- do this, and you will get that. I do volunteer counselling and I get an aultruisic reward from doing it- i feel good after going, yet i recieve no pay check, but receiev ample experience professionally for the future- is this an intrinsic of extrinsic reward?

External regulation of Motivation: Incentives, consequences and rewards Incentives

An incentive is an environmental event that attracts or repels a person toward or away form initiating a particular course of action. Incentives always precede behavior. Some positive incentives include; a smile, the presence of friends. Some negative incentives; a spoiled smell, a grimace.

What is a reinforcer? It is an extrinsic event that increases behavior (paycheck= keep turning up for work). For a theoretical point of view- the term reinforce is more complicated- as the cause produces the effect. Some theories on why rein forcers work to increase behavior: -	decreases drive (food reinforces behavior because it decreases hunger) -	Decreases arousal (drug reinforces behavior as it reduces anxiety) -	It increases arousal -	It is attractive to the person -	It produces pleasurable brain stimulation

Managing Behavior by Offering Reinforcers

Two differences in the nature of Reinforcers; they vary in their quality, and the immediacy of when a reinforcer is offered partly determines its effectiveness.

Positive Reinforcers

Is an environmental stimulus that, when presented increases the future probability of the desired behavior. Approval, paychecks, and trophies operate as positive Reinforcers that occur after saying thank you, working a 40 hour week, etc.

Negative Reinforcers

An environmental stimulus, that when removed increases the future probability of the desired behavior. Negative Reinforcers are aversive, irritating stimuli. Examples; alarm clock in the morning, medicine like panadol, nagging, crying, deadlines, time limits, and all sorts of pain are other examples.

It is relatively easy to visualize the approach behavior found with positive Reinforcers- yet it is trickier when negative reinforcers are associated with avoidance and escape behaviors.

Since doing my textbook chapter on Antisocial personality disorder,i have found that at the core of the antisocial tendencies is a maladaptive reponse to situations of reward and punishment. Effectively that those with APSD canot stop behaviours after recieving a punishment, they continue- even if there is no reward. This may explain why the recidivism rates are so high for those with APSD that commit crimes?

Punishers

An environmental stimulus that decreases future probability of an undesired behavior. Criticism, jail terms, public ridicule operate as punishers that occur after dressing sloppy, committing crime, endorsing antisocial acts. •	All these are made a punisher because they decrease the probability that someone will do the same thing again (like committing the same crime). Yet if someone is not given a punisher then they are more likely to behave the same way again.

Rewards An extrinsic reward is an offering form one person to another i exchange for his or her service or achievement. All positive Reinforcers are rewards, while only some rewards act as positive Reinforcers.

Do rewards facilitate desirable behavior? Extrinsic reward enlivens positive emotion and facilitates behavior because it signals the opportunity for personal gain.

Do punishers work- do they suppress undesirable behavior?

Punishment is an ineffective motivational strategy- popular but ineffective nonetheless. Punishment also creates undesirable side effects including negative emotionality, impaired relationship between punisher and punishee, and negative modeling of how to cope with undesirable behavior in others. This appears to be true of those involved with the justice system (namely prison)and also the negative modelling found in family voilence has been reported by many studies to be a percurser for that person who was abused to become an abusee.

Hidden costs of rewards

Increased motivation does not occur with rewards. The imposition of an extrinsic reward to engage in intrinsically interesting activity typically undermines future intrinsic motivation this is the ‘hidden cost of reward’. – so extrinsic reward undermines intrinsic motivation. Does it do that for me?

Goal Setting & Goal Striving
Plans How do plans motivate behavior? Incongruity acts as the motivational spring to action and the plan becomes the means of organizing our behavior toward the pursuit of the ideal state (provides direction). Overcoming bad hairs days and painting waterfalls illustrate the moment to moment influence plans have on our motivated behavior- getting started, putting forth effort, persisting over time, and eventually stopping. Plans can also be longer term, like career.

Corrective motivation

The plan to action sequence portrays individuals as; detecting present ideal inconsistence’s, and generating a plan to eliminate incongruity, instigating plan regulated behavior and monitoring feedback to the extent of any remaining present-ideal incongruity.

There is an emphasis on modifiable plans is important as it presents humans as active decision makers who choose which of the following to follow in a given set of circumstances.

Corrective motivation activates a decision making process in which the individual considers many different possible ways of reducing the present ideal incongruity: change the plan, change the behavior or withdraw from the plan all together.

Discrepancy Is the mismatch between ones desired state and their present state. Present state is how someone life is going at that time, while ideal state is what we work towards. Makes me thnk of how badly i want to finish my degree!!!!!

Two types of discrepancy Discrepancy reduction= discrepancy detecting feedback that underlies plans and corrective motivation Discrepancy creation= based on a feed-forward system in which a person looks forward and proactively sets a future higher goal.

In both cases it is the discrepancy or incongruity that provides the motivational basis for action.

Goal Setting A goal is whatever an individuals is striving to accomplish. Goals generate motivation by focusing peoples attention on the discrepancy between their present accomplishment and their ideal accomplishment status.

Goal Performance Discrepancy People with goals outperform those without goals. Goal Difficulty= as goals increase in difficulty, performance increases in a linear fashion. Goal Specificity= refers to how clearly a goal informs the performer precisely what he is to do. •	Difficult specific goals enhance performance

Goal Acceptance

Four factors whether an externally set goal will be accepted or rejected; -	Perceived difficulty of the imposed goal -	Participation in the goal setting process -	Credibility of the person assigning the goal -	Extrinsic Incentives

Afterthoughts on Week 5

I find the motivational model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation slightly confusing. I find myself comparing circumstances I have been in and wondering which motivational state I was in- as i find it hard to separate the effect the environment is having on my behaviour. Either way I do find the theory behind rewards and punishers fascinating as it is apparent that there are forms of motivation that just do not work!

In regards to gaol setting, i find that I am a terrible goal setter, and when looking at the theory of setting goals I can see that I very rarely take myself seriously in what i want to acheive, yet I must technically be quite a highly motivated person as I do engage in many diverse goals?!

Week Six: Personal Control and The Self
Motivation to exercise personal control In predicting what will happen and in trying to influence what happens, people try to make desirable outcomes more likely and undesirable outcomes less likely. This is personal control.

Self Efficacy

Self efficacy is when the person organizes and orchestrates their abilities to cope with the demands and circumstance he or she faces. It is the capacity to use ones resources well and under diverse and trying circumstances. Self-efficacy is defined as ones judgment of how well (or poorly) one will cope in a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances they face. Self efficacy becomes important when circumstances test our abilities, like driving an unreliable car.

The opposite of self effeminacy is doubt. For the driver who doubts their ability to cope, may not be able to drive the unfamiliar car.

Sources of Self efficacy

Personal behavior history= the extent to which a person believes they can competently enact a course of action stems form their personal history to enact that course of action in the past. People learn their self efficacy form their interpretations and memories of past attempts to execute the same behavior.

Vicarious experience= involves observing a model enact the same course of action the performer is about to enact. Seeing others perform masterfully raises an observers own sense of self efficacy; observing someone perform something poorly has a negative effect of self efficacy. Would this work in relationships after family violence?

Verbal Persuasion= coaches, teachers, employers, peers often attempt to convince us that we can competently execute a given action despite our entrenched inefficacy if we just try. Pep talks shift the person form inefficacy to efficacy.

Physiological state= fatigue, pain, muscle tension, trembling hands are physiological signals that the demands of the tasks currently exceed the performers capacity to cope with those demands. It is a private experience that gives us a sense of our inefficacy. This then heightens arousal feeding to fuel perceived inefficacy.

Self-Efficacy Effects on behavior Self efficacy beliefs contribute to the quality of human functioning in multiple ways. Generally; the more people expect that they can adequately perform an action, the more willing they are to put forth effort and persist in facing difficulties when activities require such action. In contrast, when people expect that they cannot perform a given task, they are not willing to engage activities requiring such behavior. Self efficacy beliefs effect; -	choice of activities and selection of environments (people seek out and approach with excitement those activities and situations that they feel capable of adjusting to and handling- while people shun and actively avoid those activities that overwhelm their coping capacities) -	extent of effort and persistence put forth during the performance (Strong self efficacy beliefs create persistent coping attempts aimed at overcoming setbacks and difficulties) -	the quality of thinking and decision making during performance (People who believe quite strongly about their problem solving ability remain remarkably efficient in their analytic thinking during stressful episodes, whereas people who doubt their problem solving capacities think erratically). -	emotional reactions- especially those related to stress and anxiety (people with a weak sense of self efficacy dwell on personal deficiencies, visualize the formidable obstacles they face and harbor pessimism, anxiety and depression).

Learned Helplessness
I have always been extremely interested in learned helplessness. I believe the theory and its application can be applied to many people, and it has possible implications for (I beleive) many psychological disorders and antisocial behaviours.

Learned helplessness= the psychological state that results when an individual expects that life’s outcomes are uncontrollable. With learned helplessness, ones behavior exerts little or no influence over ones outcomes. Eg. Person a job interview will perceive that even his behaviors during the interview (acting professionally) have nothing to do with whether or not they get a job. He may instead perceive the factors as out of his control (poor economy).

Learning Helplessness

Helplessness is learned. Features three components: contingency, cognition and behavior. These components explain the motivational dynamics that unfold as experience teaches people to expect that the events in their lives are out of their control.

Contingency

Refers to the objective relationship between a persons behavior and the environments outcomes.

Cognition

Mental events distort the relationship between objective contingencies and subjective understanding of personal control, and these events therefore create some margin of error between objective truth and subjective understanding. Three elements: -	Biases- illusion of control -	Attributions- why we think we do or do not have control -	Expectancies- past experiences affect on us

Behavior

Coping responses can be passive or active and assertive. Listlessness, passivity and cynicism make up the learned helpless individual.

Effects of Helplessness

Motivational deficits= Creates a decreased willingness to try. Becomes apparent when a persons willingness to emit voluntary coping responses decreases or disappears completely. “Why try” is characteristic.

Learning deficits= consist of an acquired pessimistic set that interferes with ones ability to learn a new response- outcome contingencies. Over time, exposure to uncontrollable life events cultivates an expectancy in which people believe that outcomes are generally independent of their actions.

Emotional deficits= Consist of affective disruptions in which lethargic, depressive emotional reactions occur in situations that call for active, assertive emotion. In the face of trauma, mobilized action is often necessary- over time though, an unrelenting onslaught of environmental unresponsiveness leads people to view coping as futile. This experience makes me think of family/domestic violence situations when the frustration of outsiders for the person being abused to 'just leave' whenthe actual helplessness, emotion and motivation of the person is so much more complicated.

Helplessness and Depression Some clinical psychologists view learned helplessness as a component of unipolar depression. Some expectations can cause both depression and learned helplessness- and share common symptoms.

The Self

In the quest to define the self we question who we are, what we do, how others see us, and who we want to become.

Defining or creating the self shows how self-concept energizes and directs behavior. Some aspects of self definition are ascribed to us (gender), while others must be gained through achievement (career). Relating our self to society shows us how our identity energizes and directs behavior. Discovering and developing the potential of the self is also a motivational struggle that reflects agency. Agency= that an agent (the self) has the power and intention to act, revealing the motivation inherent in the self. Self regulation= makes competent functioning more likely, so instead of acting impulsively, the self can evaluate its resources, monitor its goals and make adjustments to enable more competent functioning.

The Problem with Self esteem The best way to increase or improve someone’s motivation is to increase their self esteem. Self esteem and achievement are correlated positively with one another.

Self Concept

IS the individuals mental representation of themselves. To construct a self concept people receive feedback from their day to day affairs that reveals their personal attributes.

Self Schemas

Cognitive representations about the self that are domain specific and are learned from past experiences. The self-concept is a collection of domain specific self schemas.



Cognitive Dissonance

Sometimes people act in a way that makes them feel stupid, immoral or unreasonable. When beliefs about what the self is and what the self does are inconsistent people experience a psychologically uncomfortable experience called cognitive dissonance. People seek to reduce dissonance by: -	remove the dissonant belief -	reduce the importance of the dissonant belief -	add a new dissonant belief’ -	increase the importance of a dissonance belief

Dissonance arousing Situations

Experiences include choice, insufficient justification, effort, new information. Choice= Sometimes the choice between alternatives is easy- sometimes the choice has both a number of advantages and disadvantages. Insufficient justification= addresses how people explain their actions for which they have little or no external prompting. Effort justification= “If i do that i must really love this place”- when people exert extreme behaviors that must later by justified New Information= When you are exposed to possibilities that contradict your beliefs.

Afterthoughts on Week Six

I enjoyed this week as the idea of the self and its components fascinates my understanding of why people do what they do. I am also interested in the way our selves are shaped by the environment- especially the home. As I beleive many of those people who experience learned hellessness recieve that modelling directly form their environment.

I am also starting to get worried about the Textbook chaper, as it is taking up all my time!!!!!

Week Nine: Nature of Emotion
Five perennial questions....

1.	What is an emotion?

2.	What causes emotion?

3.	How many emotions are there?

4.	What good are emotions?

5.	What is the difference between emotion and mood?

What is an emotion?

Emotions are multidimensional. They exist as subjective, biological, purposeful and social phenomena. In part, emotions are subjective feelings, as they make us feel a certain way- such as angry or joyful. Emotions also have purpose,. And have biological reactions (like fear). The feeling component gives emotion its subjective experience that has both meaning and personal significance. The bodily arousal component includes neural and physiological activation including the activity of the autonomic and hormonal systems as they prepare and regulate the body’s adaptive coping behavior. The purposive component gives emotion is goal directed character to take action necessary to cope with the circumstances at hand. The social-expressive component is emotions communicative aspect.

Definition of Emotion

Emotions are short lived, feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events.

Emotion as Motivation = Some argue that emotion is the primary motivational system.

What Causes Emotion?

Encountering a significant life event activates the cognitive and biological processes that collectively activate the critical components of emotion, including feelings, bodily arousal etc. There is diverse debate about what causes emotion- tends to be biology versus cognition.

Biology and Cognition Cognitive and biological perspectives give a comprehensive picture of the emotion process.

Biological Perspective

States that most of emotions are noncognitive, automatic, unconscious and mediated by subcortical structures. 3 important findings: 1.	because emotional states are often difficult to verbalize, they must therefore have origins that are noncognitive (not language based) 2.	Emotional experience can be induced by noncognitive procedures such as electronic stimulation of the brain or activity of the facial muscles. 3.	Emotions occur in infants and nonhuman animals.

Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive activity is necessary for emotions. The emotion generating process occurs when the cognitive appraisals and process occurs of the event.

Two-systems view Human beings have two synchronous systems that activate and regulate emotion (Buck, 1984). The first system is innate, spontaneous ands physiological that reacts involuntarily to emotional stimulus. The second system is the experiential cognitive system that reacts interpretively and socially. The physiological system came first in evolution, whereas the cognitive system cam second in evolution as humans become more cerebral and increasingly social. Which one came first though- the chicken or the egg???

How many emotions are there?

Biological Perspective

Biological theory emphasizes primary emotions- fear, and downplays secondary emotions. A cognitive orientation emphasizes acquired and complex emotions. Gray theorizes that there are three basic emotions rooted in separated brain circuits; behavioral approach system (joy), flight or fight system (fear/anger) and the behavioral inhibition system (anxiety). Carrol Izzard sees 10 emotions: anger, fear, distress, joy, disgust, surprise, shame, guilt, interest and contempt.

Cognitive Perspective

Asserts that we experience many more emotions than 10. They believe there are a limitless amount of emotions that exist. They believe that emotions arise in response to the meaning structures of given situations; different emotions arise in response to different meaning structures. Basic Emotions

Fear= emotional reaction that arises from a persons interpretation that the situation they face is dangerous and a threatening to ones own wellbeing. Perceived dangers can be physiological and psychological. The most common fear activating situations are those that create anticipation of physical or physiological actual harm, a vulnerability to danger. Fear motivates defense, functioning as a warning signal for forthcoming harm that manifests in autonomic arousal- shaking, trembling etc. Fear can also provide motivational support for learning coping strategies.

Anger= Anger arises from restraint, as in the interpretation of ones own plans, goals or well being have been interfered with by someone else  or an outside force. Anger can arise from a betrayal of trust, being rebuffed, criticisms. Anger is the most passionate emotion, the angry person becomes stronger and more energized. It increases people sense of control. Anger is also the most dangerous, as it can create aggression.

Disgust= getting rid of or moving away from a contaminated, deteriorated or soiled object. Disgust arises in adulthood through our encounters with objects that are contaminated in some way; bodily functions (death, gore), interpersonal contamination (someone being around you who is undesirable), moral contaminations (child abuse, incest). The function of disgust is rejection. Trough disgust the individual actively rejects and cats off physical or physiological aspects of the environment. Because disgust is phenomleogically driven, it is subjective to each persons morals and values.

Sadness= is the most negative aversive emotion. Arises principally form experiences of separation or failure. Separation= loss of loved one, home town, failure= an examination, contest. Because it is aversive, sadness motivates the individual to initiate whatever behavior is necessary to alleviate the distress invoking stimulus.

Joy= Created by desirable outcomes, success at task, getting what we want etc. Joy is the emotional evidence that things are going well. Joy facilitates our willingness to participate in social activities. Second, joy has a soothing function, makes life pleasant and balances life experiences of frustration etc.

Interest= Most prevalent emotion in day to day functioning. Creates the desire to explore, investigate, seek out, manipulate and extract information form the objects around us.

What good are emotions?

Coping functions= they occur for a reason, energizes us in adaptive ways, serves eight distinct purposes: - Protection, destruction, reproduction, reunion, affiliation, rejection, exploration and orientation.

Social Functions= Emotions: -	Communicate our feelings to others -	Influence how others interact with us -	Invite and facilitate social interacting -	Create and maintain and dissolve relationships.

Afterthoughts from Week Nine

As I am spending alot of time on my textbook chapter and I am doing antisocial personality disorder, I am finding alot of intersting information on what occurs when someone experiences maladaptive emotions- or none at all. I had never really stopped to think about how big a role emotions have in our daily lives- yet it is obvious that they are not only essential for adaptive behaviours, but also for relationships with others and the community. With my studies so far on APSD, I am reflecting on the lack of empathy these people xperience, and also thinking about what it would be like to not have any- it is very scary!

Week Ten: Aspects of Emotion
Biological Aspects of Emotion

Emotions are in part reactions to important life events. Facing a situation of personal significance (eg threat) the body prepares itself to cope effectively (gets ready to run) by activating the following; 1.	heart and lungs (autonomic nervous system) 2.	glands and hormones (endocrine system) 3.	Limbic brain structures such as the amygdala (neural brain circuits) 4.	neural activity and the pace of information processing (rate of neural firing) 5.	Discrete patterns of facial musculature (facial feedback).

James Lange Theory

He suggested that our bodily experiences do not follow the chain of stimulus-emotion-bodily reaction. He believed that emotional experience follows form our bodily responses. So: stimulus - bodily reaction – emotion. Theory rests on two assumptions: the body reacts uniquely to different emotion- eliciting events, and the body does not react to non-emotion- eliciting events- had many criticisms though.

Contemporary perspective

Persuasive evidence suggests for distinctive autonomic nervous system activity associated with fear, anger, disgust and sadness. In discussing the James Lange theory the fundamental question is whether the physiological arousal causes or just follows the emotions. The modern perspective is that emotions recruit biological and physiological support to enable adaptive behaviors such as fighting, fleeing and nurturing.

Specific Neural Circuits

Contemporary researchers have been looking at emotion specific pattern sin brain activity. Gray’s neuro-anatomical findings document three distinct findings in the brain- each of which regulates a distinctive pattern of emotional behavior: 1.	Behavioral approach system- readies the animal to seek out and attract environmental opportunities 2.	Fight or flight system- readies animal to flee form aversive events 3.	behavioral inhibition system- readies the animal to freeze in the face of aversive events.

Specific Brain Areas

Different parts of the amygdala generate different negative emotions like fear, anger and anxiety. The left prefrontal cortex generates joy, and positive affect: the right prefrontal cortex generates fear and negative affect. Neural Activation

Different emotions are activated by different rates of cortical neural firing. Neural firing is electro-cortical activity at any given time. With these basic patterns of neural firing, the person is equipped for virtually every important life event. If neural firing suddenly increases, the person experiences one class of emotions- surprise, fear or interest- with the specific emotion depending on the rate of neural firing. If neural firing reaches and maintains a high level, then the constant neural firing activates either distress or anger; finally if neural firing decreases, joy is activated.

Differential Emotions Theory

Takes its name form the different emotions that serve different motivational purposes. Endorses the following: -	Ten emotions constitute the principal motivation system for human beings. -	Unique feeling: each emotion has its own unique subjective, phenomenological quality -	Unique expression: each emotion has its own unique facial-expressive pattern -	Unique neural activity: Each emotion has its own specific rate of neural firing that activates it -	Unique/purpose motivation: Each emotion generates a distinctive motivational property and serves adaptive functions.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis According to this hypothesis the subjective aspect of emotion stems form feelings engendered from: -	movements of the facial musculature -	changes in facial temperature -	changes of glandular activity in the facial skin

Facial feedback- does one job, emotional activation. Once an emotion is activated it is the emotion program not the facial feedback that then recruits further cognitive and bodily participation to maintain emotional experience over time. The person then becomes aware of and monitors not her facial feedback but her changes in heart rate, respiration, muscle tonus, posture etc.

Facial action also changes brain temperature, such that facial movements associated with negative emotion (sadness) constrict breathing, raise brain temperature and produce negative feelings; whereas facial movements associated with positive emotion (happiness) enhance breathing, cool brain temperature.

Facial Musculature

There are 80 facial muscles, 36 of which are involved in facial expression. There are eight that differentiate to show the 8 most basic emotions. I am shocked to learn that our emotions are governed by our faces! Patterns of facial behavior produce discrete emotions. Anger, fear, disgust, distress and joy for instance all have recognizable facial expressions.

Cognitive Aspects of Emotion

 Appraisal

The central construct in cognitive understanding of emotion. An appraisal is an estimate of the personal significance of an event- is this life event significant? -	without an antecedent cognitive appraisal of the event emotions do not occur’ -	the appraisal, not the event itself causes the emotion.

Appraisals precede and elicit emotions. The persons appraisal of a situation creates the emotional experience of how they will feel.

From Perception to appraisal

People categorically appraise stimulus events and objects as either positive or negative. This is further substantiated by the brain.

From appraisal to emotion

Once an object has been appraised as good or bad (beneficial or harmful) an experience of liking or disliking follows immediately and automatically. This liking or disliking is the emotion

From felt emotion to action

Liking promotes a motivational tendency to approach the emotion generated object; dislikes generates avoidance.

Complex Appraisal

A more comprehensive view has since been created; as people evaluate the situation to see if it has relevance for their personal wellbeing. When well being is at stake they then evaluate the potential harm or benefit they face. These appraisals take the form of questions, and coping abilities for the situation also come into to play.

Primary Appraisal

Involves an estimate of whether one has anything at stake in the encounter. The following are potentially at stake in primary appraisal; -	health -	self esteem -	financial state -	a goal -	respect -	 well being of a loved one

Secondary Appraisal This occurred after some reflection by the person and involves the persons assessment for the coping with the possible benefit harm or threat.

Appraisal process

Many theories have since created a more and more comprehensive view of the appriasal process and emotion. Other possible appraisals; -	Expectancy = did I expect the event to happen? -	Responsibility= what cause the event? -	Legitimacy= is what happened fair? -	Compatibility with standards of society= is the event okay on moral level?

Emotion Knowledge = The number of emotions anyone is able to distinguish form.

Attributions

Rests on the assumption that people want to explain why they experienced a particular life outcome. An attribution is a reason for why people explain a life outcome. They way we explain the outcome generates our emotional reactions.

Social And Cultural aspects of Emotion

The socio-cultural context one lives in contributes to the understanding of emotion. Social psychologists assert that emotions originate from social interaction and cultural contexts.

Social Interaction Other people are our most frequent source of day to day emotion. We experience a greater number of emotions when with others than when we are alone. Other peoples emotions also affect us, directly and indirectly. Emotional contagion= the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize expressions, vocalizations, postures and movements of those around us. As we are exposed to the emotional expressions of others, we also mimic their facial expressions.

Afterthoughts from Week 10

I am fascinated by the facial feedback hypothesis and its application to emotion theory. I find social interaction and emotions to be interesting, due to the amount of emotions we experience alone versus with others. It is interestign to note that there isnt a huge cultrual divide amongst emotions- I suppose that just re asserts the idea that even oif we are from different countries and places- we all feel happy, sad, anger; and are all able to distinguish this in facial expressions. The movie Babel that came out and explored communication amognst cross-cultural divides is best summed up through expressions and theory of emotion.

Week Eleven: Personality, Emotion and Motivation
Some people are happier than others, and others are sadder than others- this is predicted through personality characteristics- I like to think that I am a naturally happy person, and when thinking of this chapter- i do beleiev it is in my perosnality as I am extroverted.

Individual Differences in Happiness, Arousal and Control

Happiness Most people are happy, irrespective of their life circumstance. People in low income groups generally say they are happy, people with little formal education generally say they are happy, and people in almost every nation say they are happy. People react strongly to pleasant life events like winning the lottery, yet after the huge happy event, they generally return back to the feelings they had before. We seem to have two emotional set points. One set point is for positive emotionality ( A happiness set point). Another is for negative emotionality (an unhappiness set point). How happy or unhappy we are is independent indicators of well being. The status of our happiness and unhappiness set points can be explained by individual differences in our personalities. Happiness set point appears to cone form extroversion, while the unhappiness set point comes form differences in neuroticism.

Extroversion and Happiness

The personality characteristic associated with ‘who is happy’ is extroversion ( like me :). Extroversion= sociability (preference for and enjoyment of other people and social situations), assertiveness (tendency towards social dominance) and venturesomneess (tendency to seek out and enjoy exciting situations). Emotionally, extroverts are happier than introverts and they enjoy more frequent positive moods than introverts. Extroverts are more happier than introverts because they are more sensitive to the rewards inherent in social situations- having a greater sensitivity to positive feelings, and more likely to approach potentially rewarding situations more than introverts. Extroverts also have a stronger BAS (behavioral activation system) than introverts. This means they see more intense signals of reward that leave them anticipating situations with excitement, happiness, and wanting to approach. The motivational system of the BAS is approach orientated, goal directed behavior- for extraverts this is strongly activated.

Neuroticism and Suffering

The personality characteristic associated with “who is unhappy” is neuroticism. I have come across many peopl like htis in my life- and i fin dit quite draining to be around, as cynicism takes up energy! Neuroticism= predisposition to experience negative affect and to feel chronically dissatisfied and unhappy. Day in and day out neurotics experience greater stress, more negative emotionality and steady stream, of mood states such as anxiety, fear and irritability. Neurotics suffer emotionally. They mostly do so because they harbor disturbed and troubling thoughts, Bad life events bring the neurotic not only a bad life event but a host of upsetting and pessimistic thoughts. The differential capacity for negative emotions occurs because neurotic and emotionally stable individuals possess differing levels of sensitivity to the underlying biological motivations system. Neurotics have a strong and sensitive BIS ( Behavioral inhibition system). The BIS for neurotics signals forthcoming punishment, and these are the sources of anxiety and fear. As the BIS encourages avoidance oriented behavior (like escape, withdrawal).

Extraverts are generally happy, neurotics are generally unhappy Arousal

Governs alertness, wakefulness and activation. These processes are cortical, behavioral, and autonomic mechanisms. Four principles underlie arousal contribution to motivation:

-	A persons arousal level is mostly a function of how stimulating the environment is -	People engage in behavior to increase of decrease their arousal -	When under aroused, people seek out oppurtunities to increase their arousal levels- because increases in environmental stimulation are pleasurable and enhance performance whereas decreases are aversive and undermine performance -	When over aroused, people seek out opportunities to decrease their arousal.

-	This is explained by Yerkes Dodson law- the inverted U (shown on the left here)

Performance and Emotion

The inverted U states that a low level of arousal produces relatively poor performance. As arousal level increases to high, performance also decreases. Therefore, optimal arousal is about being aroused, but not too aroused (moderate). This moderate level of arousal coincides with experiences of pleasure.

Insufficient Stimulation and Under arousal

Sensory deprivation research illustrates the psychological consequences of being under aroused. The brain and the nervous system prefer a moderate level of arousal generated by environmental stimuli.

Excessive Stimulation and Over-arousal

Over stimulating, stressful environments upset emotional states, impair cognitive activity and accelerate physiological processes. Emotional disruption manifests itself in feelings of anxiety, irritability and anger. As these are unpleasant experiences, people generally want to escape from overestimating environments. Sensation Seeking= people differ in their baseline level of arousal and in their reactivity to environmental stimuli. Baseline level of arousal is how aroused a person is without external stimulation. Sensation seeking is the personality characteristic related to arousal and reactivity. A low sensations seeker prefers less brain stimulation and tolerates routine very well. A high sensation seeker prefers varied,, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences and a willingness to take physics, social, legal and financial risks. Sensation seekers: -	seek new experiences ( sex, drugs) -	Experience more risk taking behaviors ( risky hobbies- motorbike riding) -	Biological basis- believe they have low levels of MOA= monoamine oxidize, like serotonin and dopamine.

Control

Many personality characteristics could be included under a category of control beliefs; including locus of control, causality orientations, mastery versus helpless orientations, explanatory style, and desire for control. Two stand out- desire for and perceived control. Perceived Control Refers to the beliefs and expectations a person holds that he or she can interact with the environment in ways that produce desired outcomes and prevent underserved outcomes. Ir order for this perception two things have to be true; 1.	The person must be able to obtain the desired outcome 2.	the situation in which one attempts to exercise control needs at least to be somewhat predictable.

Desire for Control

Reflects the extent to which individuals are motivated to establish control over events in their lives. High desire for control individuals approach situations by asking themselves whether they will be able to control what happens. Low DC people tend to avoid responsibilities and feel comfortable having others make decisions for them.

Loosing Control

Military life, prison, nursing home, overcrowding are also situations where little control is possible. When people desire control but the environment does not support it, depression and learned helplessness can occur.

Afterthoughts on Week Eleven

Week Twelve: Unconcious Motivation
Motivation can occur from a source that lies outside our conscious awareness. I remember first learning about psychology- and one of the first things we were taught was about Freud and psychoanalysis. It conjours up ideas about the 'iceberg metaphor' that sees most of our unconcious sitting below the surface of the water, and only asmall tip of the top if the iceberg being our concious thought and awareness.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Presents a largely deterministic and pessimistic image of human nature. Psychoanalysis it holds that the ultimate cause for motivation and behavior is derived from biologically endowed and socially acquired impulses that determine our desires, thoughts, feelings and behaviors- whether we like it or not. They also believe that personality does not change after puberty. Motivations comes across as something that happens to us, not something we choose or create. Places the spotlight on sexual, aggressive urges, conflict, anxiety, repression, defense mechanisms, anxiety etc. Psychoanalysis is strangely appealing and wonderfully popular. Part of the appeal is it makes the unconscious its subject matter- dreams, fantasy, hypnosis and all the hidden forces that shape our motives for behavior.

Dual-Instinct Theory

Freud viewed motivation as regulated by impulse driven biological forces. The human body was seen as a complex energy system organizes for the purpose of increasing or decreasing its energies through behavior. Fro Freud there were as many drives as there were different bodily demands ( food, water, sleep). Instead of having huge list- he had the instinct for death, and the instinct for life. Life Instincts (Eros) = maintain life and ensure individual and collective (species) survival Death Instincts (Thanatos) = push the individual toward rest, inactivity and energy conservation. Freud emphasizes aggression with the death instinct.

Drive or wish?

Few contemporary motivation theorists see motivation through the dual instinct theory. As a substitute psychological theory, sex and aggression are seen as wishes rather than physiological drives. This reformulated model is a ‘wish model’.

Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory

Four assumptions define psychodynamic theory. 1.	Psychodynamic thought has had time to put Freud’s insightful propositions to empirical tests to see which assumptions do and which assumptions do not stand objective tests to time and investigation. 2.	Most people would be more familiar with friends classical psychoanalysis than they will with contemporary psychodynamic theory. •	Which is why a review is needed of the following 4 assumptions 1.	The unconscious= Much of mental life is unconscious 2.	Psychodynamics= Mental processes operate parallel with one another 3.	Ego development= Healthy development involves moving through stages 4.	Object relations theory= Mental representations of self and others form in childhood that guide the persons later social motivations and relationships.

The Unconscious

Freud believed that the individual must express strong unconscious urges and impulses, though in a disguised form. It is therefore a ‘shadow phenomenon’ that cannot be known directly. Freud believed the unconscious was the primary process and conscious as the secondary process. The consensus today, is that much of mental life is unconscious is now largely accepted as true. The idea that people have motivations that lie outside of our conscious thought is also held up motivation theorists. There are now three different portrayals of the unconscious- the adaptive, the implicit and the Freudian unconscious.

Freudian Unconscious

Fundamental premise of psychoanalysis. The conscious refers to all feelings, thoughts, sensations, memories and experiences that the person is aware of at a given time. The preconscious stores all the thoughts feelings etc that are absent from the immediate consciousness, but can be retrieved without prompting. The unconscious is the mental storehouse of inaccessible instinctual impulses, repressed experiences, childhood memories and strong unfulfilled wishes and desires. Freud believed that dreams function to vent unconscious wishes- yet today in contemporary society we have found that dreams serve; 1.	Neuro-physiological activity 2.	Memory consolidation 3.	stress buffering or coping function 4.	problem solving function

Adaptive Unconscious

The adaptive unconscious states goals, makes judgments, initiate actions- all while we are thinking about something else. It performs routine activities, recognizing events as familiar or not and acquires the sort of implicit knowledge we gain as when we listen to and remember music.

Implicit Motivation Implicit motivation refers to all those motives, emotions, attitudes, and judgments that operate outside a persons conscious awareness and that are fundamentally distinct form self report motives, emotions attitudes and judgments.

Psychodynamics

Freud believed people had two minds, with counter ideas and counter wills. When the conscious (ego) will and the unconscious (id) counter will are of roughly equal strength a sort of internal war ensues in which neither is completely satisfied. Freud’s idea of the human mind was of conflict.

Week Fourteen: Summary and Conclusion
I have thoroughly enjoyed this unit. The way it has been delivered, including the assessment tasks have helped create a full understanding for me of motivation and emotion. I enjoyed doing the textbook chapter the most, and in thinking back to when it was done was very proud of myself (and I got 1 mark of a HD!!!). Initially, in week 2 i was terrified of using a wiki and doing the multimedia assignment, as I do not consider myself very technilogically savvy- yet now I have a thorough knowledge of how to edit and direct myself around the 'wiki-universe' and am extremely happy about it.

My favourite week or topic was deifintly the 2 weeks on Emotion, as I find it quite fascinating. The other area is learned helplessness and aspects of personality that create neurotiscism. I will be going away from this unit with alot more knowledge- as usually when i do exams I forget whatever I have studied a short time after.