User:Stevenarntson/group spaces/2009springanalytical/group 5


 * Jerileehippolyte
 * Chelseapurcella
 * Sethleneelliott
 * Timothymcinnis

Overview

 * 1.summary

Alternative energy sources to fossil fuels are becoming increasingly more available, but are they a global option, or just a regional solution in an ever conscientious world? Some of the common fuel sources available will be discussed briefly over the next few pages and farther in depth in relation to the regions of the world in the pages thereafter. Which resources work best for which regions thus far, such as fossil fuels in Antarctica, and what could be done better, like solar panels in Australia are among the focal discussions.

Reflective Assessment
Successes: We started out pretty well, making a detailed outline breaking up topics for each group member and also the subjects we would touch on. Most of our group members also came to any group meetings we had.

Failures: Each group member had many other things to do this quarter so it was always hard to remember to post something on our group assignment page. Also, we had a group member that routinely didn't show up to class so it was hard to coordinate and communicate who was going to write what.

Future strategies: Possibly have one group member send a reminder email to each person telling what needs to be done for each week. Also, just to improve on attendance since communication in a group project is pretty important.

History
Although the industrial revolution (1700’s-1800’s and the farming revolution high point in the late 1600’s) is marked as the most notary point in time where energy demands reached a critical necessity, it should be noted that the quest for energy efficiency has been around as long as life its self. The following energy scources are the most commonly used and have evolved from the earliest of societies needs and curiosities.

Bio based energy
In the 1600’s, and before, animals and humans were the only means by which work could be accomplished. Food was consumed to power them, so that they could cultivate more food, animals, and increase populations. 1650 was considered the highest point in farming. This was deemed inefficient, as demands for food became higher and productivity less capable of providing for those demands. New methods of working the farming industry led to innovations in other fuel source categories, eventually returning to the use of crops as a fuel source. Although biological consumption is the oldest form, and longest lasting renewable fuel source, the debate remains: Is it the best solution to providing for our demands, or would other methods prove more efficient?

Solar Energy
The only renewable source that is perpetually the same throughout history. Although the uses for solar radiation have changed little; light, heat, food for plants and micro-organisms, magnetic radiation charges, the methods of harnessing the sun’s rays as a fuel source have been added to. The old methods of absorb naturally through bask and consume smaller cell formations still remain, but humans have added the Solar panel to the list. A solar panel basks in the light of the sun, charging its artificial cells and transferring the stored energy through wires either directly connected to the demand of energy, or sending it to a battery that can store the power for later use. Recharging generators is another use of solar panel energy. The commonly used complaint about solar panels and solar energy is that many regions receive very little sunlight, and not enough can be absorbed to be of long term use. Also, solar panels need to be constructed, and the factories and methods are not only expensive, but require the use of other energy sources that are not as environmentally friendly to construct the devices in their entirety.

Wind power
Windmills have been the most popular form of wind power harnessing, but there are new methods in development. Wind turbines in forms similar to wind mills, and attached to balloons are in queue for the modern markets. Sent into the jet stream and various levels of the atmosphere to capture the currents of the air, these devices send the energy generated by the wind propelled mechanisms along wires to ground storage units, such as batteries and generators, and directly to the energy demanding devices. Unfortunately the devices for harnessing the wind interrupt pollen drift patterns, bird migrations, and some even question the possibility that the disruption of the winds free flow could have effects on the environmental weather patterns, disrupting rain fall and temperature cycles.

Hydropower
Dams and watermills come to mind when mentioning water power. Although new methods, such as methods of harnessing “hydrokinetic” energy from water currents have been developed, and proven able to harness more energy using less effort, the method is slow to advance in popular knowledge. Where dams interrupt the migration of fish and alter the ecological state of aquatic and surrounding plant and animal life of the regions they are constructed in, as well as the landscape, and water mills cause similar damage on a smaller scale, the SmarTurbine Generator was developed in 1981 to be environmentally friendly with these malfunctions compensated for and averted. However, what to do with the methods in place, and whether or not the newest methods can be implemented is a question worth addressing.

Fossil Fuels
For the last decade, at least, fossil fuels have been a negatively charged topic of discussion across many forums. Global warming/cooling enthusiasts insist that the burning of fossil fuels is accelerating the degradation of the planet’s delicate life cycle, and the damage threatens to make the Earth inhospitable to human kind at an accelerated pace. Environmentalist organizations and geological scientists insist that the mining of coal, oil, natural gas and petroleum, the most common forms, damages the ecosystems that thrive on and around them. The same ecosystems that are a part of the cycle that generates the fuels are being cleared away and not replaced, interrupting the very balance of nature. Humans who profit from these industries would argue that they are doing their part to ensure that safe practices in all aspects of the business have been growing alongside the knowledgeable findings of the seemingly detrimental process. Additionally, much of modern civilization has become dependent on the consumption of fossil fuels for everyday living; from transportation and home care, to refinement and generation of textiles and manufactured goods. Fossil fuels were once considered to be the alternative resource to bio fuels, but today, compliments of fossil non-renewability (in a reasonable sense of time), bio fuels are rapidly being vocalized as the alternative to fossil fuels. Is trading organic matter in one stage of its life cycle for another stage the answer to the problems being addressed, or are we in need of different questions to find more efficient solutions?

Nuclear Energy
Created through the works of several scientists like Albert Einstein (1879-1955), Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934), Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), and Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) to solve the world’s energy problem. Nuclear energy has seen more controversy in the latest century than any other fuel source. Harnessed by splitting atoms in toxic substances like plutonium and uranium in a process called nuclear fission (dividing the atom) and transferring the falloff radiation to storage facilities to be converted to electricity, nuclear power was believed to be the cleanest source of energy, capable of generating energy on a large scale for the longest period of time. The original hope was to develop a method of mimicking the fusion (merging of the atoms) technique accomplished by the Sun and other stars. So far no one has been able to adapt a mechanism capable of recreating and harnessing that fusion power. Where nebulae have succeeded in generating this inspiration, humans have used it to inspire other uses for the means far less creative in force. One of the biggest negative sides to the unstable nuclear energy technology came about in the 1930’s when the Manhattan Project, consisting of scientists and the like of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Edward Teller, Stanislaw Ulam, and Hans Albrecht Bethe invented the nuclear bomb. The A-bomb/atomic bomb, and thermonuclear/hydrogen bomb are a force of destruction unparalleled and not to be ignored by any humans as a continued threat to existence when developing nuclear power facilities, especially since the facilities themselves have been known to react with similar results when malfunctions occur. Add to that danger the now undeniable detriment to the environment and the planet’s ecosystem in entirety through toxic discharge, waste, and increasing the amount of what would naturally be the less harmful forms of substances by converting them to the irreversible dangerously unstable forms for a bit of extra juice. How clean is this method really, and can we replace the level gained from it with something else?

Viewpoint #1: North America
To look at American energy consumption we can see a variety of needs when it comes to distribution. We believe a solid look at the way each region, within America, benefits most from various renewable energy sources, and a revamping of the system based on the most viable options available, would be taking a great stride to alleviating our need for non-renewable resources.

The first thing we must look at is how regional America is. The variety of climate zones and elevation changes make it difficult to unify any energy distribution within a single nation.

Energy History
The Pacific region of America has been entrenched in the burning of fuel to supply power to its people. Coal is abundant throughout the western side of the country and energy production capability makes it an easy option for use. The building of hydroelectric dams has become a more “Earth-friendly” option, but the yield is small and costly in comparison.

Current Problems
The western side of the nation is heavily dependent on electricity through the burning of coal. The growing need for electricity is a staggering hurdle for the next generation of energy production. Demand is expected to go up 6 fold in the next 15 years. The current, cleanest method is hydroelectric power. This accounts for only 7% of the total electricity generated for the Pacific region of America, and there is no promise of growth in the amount of power hydroelectricity can produce. The solid standby is the burning of coal to generate power. This makes up almost 50% of the electricity generated for the region. The burning of coal, however, is producing carbon emissions that pose serious problems to the climate of the planet.

Solutions
California is currently making strides in the production of solar panels. Government incentive programs and new state legislation enables citizens to contract the building of solar panels for use of private business and residential districts. This allows the people to create a substantial amount of energy to fuel the private sector. State wide, California is currently generating more than 500 megawatts of power.

To address the issues of the coal powered energy method, the main focus is environmental impact. With no immediate danger of running thin, coal is set as a resource America has become and will remain dependent on. An upside to this is that America is currently making advancements in the process of capturing the carbon burn off of the coal and recycling it into another fuel source.

Energy History
The eastern side of America has been the flourishing highlight of American advancement. The burning of fossil fuels has been a heavy part of the production oriented east coast. With many big cities of old factories a different look at the way energy is created in the region is vital.

Current Problems
Similar to the western side of the country, the Atlantic region is a heavy coal burning area. The most of the fuel they use is brought to them and used after distribution. This method has also grown inefficient to the region, not to mention environmentally dangerous. The estimated growth of used resources by the region has been around 17% since 1991 and is assumed to keep growing.

Solutions
Currently under investigation around the north east region is a plan to harvest fuel from an algae that, through the photosynthesis process, release lipids that may revolutionize the field of bio-fuels. The amount of bio-fuel that could be produced from these algae is 30-40 times higher per acre, than that of any other bio-fuel method.

To accompany the idea of bio fueling, the region is exploring bio-nuclear energy reactors. The idea is to take what is basically compost and burn the waste to produce a similar lipid as the algae. This is supposed to be an answer to two of the nation’s problems, waste and want.

Energy History
Central America has flourished as a farming and agricultural region. The burning of coal and fuels is relatively low compared to the rest of the country. The use of transferred energy has been high in the region, and an abundance of motor fuel is used in the region to support the trafficking of production.

Current Problems
The biggest issues concerning energy consumption in the central region is the transfer of electricity to the region. Current energy demands are a strain on the system established for the region. Low storage capacity, energy loss during transfer and complications arising from crashes along the pipeline make the current technology obsolete.

Solutions
The harvesting of bio-fuels from corn is a high hope for a new creation of energy. The region is currently able to produce high amounts of bio-fuel and through processing can use the power generated in a local setting, cutting energy loss and greenhouse gas emissions across the board.

America as a Whole
The process of creating energy is best fit to the surroundings for the use of the energy. But transportation and storage are still going to be an issue. There is progress being made in regards to how the energy is handled once it is harvested. A system set in place by the Bush administration and carried along by the Obama administration, known as the Smart Grid will bring the process into the digital age. The idea is going to be an automated system of energy transfer and storage. It is going to wire all transfer and storage systems along with the meters and appliances of a home. It will be a running circuit of energy that will adapt the energy output to even smaller regions based on the needs and demand. This new system is supposed to cut energy loss in all aspects of the process. As well as be more stable against blackouts and failures. Not to mention the amount of energy transfer capability of the new alloys going into the new systems hardware is greatly increased across the board.

Energy History
South America has been a nation grown on agriculture. Sugar, fruits and coffee grow in abundance. Warm climates and ample agriculture land, not to mention one of the largest supplies of fresh water in the world, gives South America distinct advantages in the future of global trade. Brazil and Argentina alone, produce one third of the worlds ethanol. The desire for clean renewable resources weighs heavy on the nations of South America. Many endeavors to sustain the rich quality of the land and the growing population are underway throughout South America.

Current Problems
Currently big cities around South America are importing mostly fossil fuels for energy generation. About forty percent of consumable energy is generated within the continent, mostly from hydroelectric power.

Solutions
Advancements in the area of “rice-hull” bio-fuels has enabled Nicaraguan cities to generate power for the local communities. The local rice hulling machines are powered by local hydroelectricity generators. The localization of this process allows the 220 farming communities to process and market their products with less overhead. Doubling profits in some cases. Regions in the Amazon Bolivia, Chile, Peru and Ecuador are attempting to raise standards of living by utilizing solar paneling technology. The introduction of this power source has shown an increase in production of local goods and has opened communication to and from the local communities. On a similar note, Argentina is currently in development of one of the most powerful solar paneling system in the world. This park, hoped to be completed in 2010, will generate up to 2400 megawatts of energy.

Energy History
Antarctica, The continent at the bottom of the world that is owned by no one, yet belongs to everyone. With wind gust reported up to 200 mph and temperatures below –50 C, (1) this frozon pice of soil has remained the most hostile place left on earth in terms of climate and has had no government nor an indigenous people. Antarctica is divided by eight territories and home to seven claimant nations which are located within the eight territories. (2) The cooperation of 47 nations has signed the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)(3)and was created in 1961 during the cold war. The Antarctic Treaty Ststem specifies Antarctica as a scientific preserve which bands military activity on the continent and establishes freedom of scientific study.

In the first part of the 1980`s Huge deposits of coal, natural gas and oil were discovered under the continent. In order to preserve Antarctica’s pristine environment additional protection to the Antarctica Treaty System, the Madrid Protocol (4) was added in 1991 and went into effect in 1998. This designates the continent as a place of peace and science and has a moratorium on mining and drilling for oil for 50 years. The Madrid Protocol also has rules that were established by all 47 nations that pertain to allhuman activity on the continent.

With no mining or drilling on the continent, all gas and oil has to be imported by air or sea by there respected countries, which in turn sometimes results in oil spills and pollution Although, not as damaging as other large oil tanker spills, none the less, Importing oil and petroleum to this hostile and pristine environment has its risk. (5) With a constant wind year round and sunlight 24 hours a day for six months out of the year, a free and renewable resource has been used for years by explorers and researchers, but on a smaller scale. But what are the cost and environment implications to this renewable resource if used on a large scale and what are the benefits to those who will use it?

Current Problems
Although wind is abundant year round and the sun only shines 24 a day during the southern hemisphere summer the challenge researchers have had is harnessing the wind and sun for power in extereme weather conditions. According to a Reuters article, (5) renewable energies such as wind and solar are starting to replace fossil fuel, although renewable energy sources are still a challenge because of the cold temperatures and high winds (6). Collecting the sun has been a challenge, but this renewable energy is finally getting a foothold on Antarctic research bases. For example, according to ABC News in Science (7) by Alister Doyle from Reuters, the solar panels can collect just as much energy as any place in Europe in one year because the sun light reflects off the snow. One of the problems with solar panels is that plastic in the panels may not always stand up to the frigid weather. Also from ABC News in Science the Belgium’s Elisabeth research station (see map2) on the east side of Antarctica is working towards relying on solar and wind power completely and the United States and New Zealand stations will share energy from a wind farm under-construction on the most southerly part of Antarctica.(8) Japan gets there solar and wind power from their Syowa base. The Australian’s have been using wind power at their base since 2003 (8).

One of the company’s manufacturing turbines is Proven Energy, (9, 10, 11) a Scottish based company with a proven track record, has manufactured wind turbines that with-stand high winds and low temperatures. Another company out of New Zealand, Meridian is shipping wind turbines to the New Zealand’s Scott Base and the American Antarctic stations. (13) One of the problems a lot of the research stations are having, which is making this natural resource slow to use is the lack of equipment to build the turbines. During the southern hemisphere winter the sea is frozen over so ships that are transporting huge wind turbine have to wait untill the ice brakes up.

Solutions
Although, solar panels are being used in Antarctica and are still experimental, extreme weather conditions are a challenge. Research stations are working together to use this renewable resource as an inexpensive and environmentally friendly source of energy. (14) One promising note is that when all the research station are utilizing  this form of renewable energy more money will be available for  extensive research on climate change, the Ozone(15) and the effects of fossil fuel on the atmosphere. With technological advances in harnessing wind and solar power as well as extreme weather resistent materials, Antarctica my remain the last environmentally hostile and pristine place on earth.

Energy History
Australia is the world’s fourth largest coal producer and coal accounts for around 44% of its total energy needs. Australia is also a net exporter of natural gas and was, until recently, about 70% self sufficient on its own oil. Fossil fuels dominate Australian energy consumption and their dependence on fossil fuels is heightened by the fact that electricity is largely produced in coal-fired power stations. 84% of the electricity generated for Australian homes is powered by coal and the other 12% comes from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity. Also, nuclear power is a possible resource because Australia’s one research reactor holds 40% of the world’s known uranium reserves and it currently serves as just an export.

Current Problems
It is estimated that by the year 2020, Australia’s use of renewable energy sources will double the amount of petajoules put out in 1999. Coal and oil will continue to dominate energy use in Australia over the next twenty years but there are further changes on the way driven by climate change, international treaties including the Kyoto Protocol and by mandated government policy.

In 2006, Australia’s Prime Minister John Howard announced that a study into whether the country should develop nuclear power began. The assessment looked into whether the country should shift some of its energy production from coal and gas to nuclear energy. Currently, Australia is the world's largest coal producer, thus the majority of Australia’s energy comes from coal. Critics argue that nuclear power is unnecessary because of Australia’s large coal resources and environmentalists are against any domestic nuclear power. Implementing a nuclear energy program would involve having to build the infrastructure necessary to house the nuclear power processes.

The Mandatory Renewable Energy Target was created in 2001 by the Australian government and stated that Australia’s energy producers were required to generate an extra 45,000 gigawatt-hours in 2020. In addition to this, the government initiated a plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the introduction of a carbon accounting system for estimating greenhouse gases, and funding for programs to boost renewable energy projects, research and development. In 2009, these goals were expanded even more.

Australia’s new Prime Minister Kevin Rudd signed the Kyoto Protocol in 2007. The Australian government’s Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts has implemented many programs for reducing their greenhouse gas emissions and to meet its Kyoto target, such as grants to schools for the installation of solar power systems and rainwater tanks as well as rebates for home and building owners when they install solar panels.

Australia has also executed an experimental program called Solar Cities. Each Solar City integrates a combination of energy options such as energy efficiency measures for homes and businesses, the use of solar technologies, cost reflective pricing trials to reward people who use energy wisely, and community education about better energy usage in an increasingly energy-reliant world.

Solutions
With such large coal and natural gas reserves, continuing their use of them is the best option for Australia, just out of convenience. Also, with Australia holding 40% of the world’s known uranium in a research reactor, a nuclear energy program would provide the extra gigawatt-hours required by the Renewable Energy Target. Australia also has so much potential for the use of solar energies because of the amount of desert that makes up the landmass. Solar panels and troughs could easily be placed there without disturbing or harming the wildlife. Sources of hydroelectric power should also be taken advantage of, such as tidal power, since Australia is surrounded by water.

Energy History
90% of the continent's electricity supply comes from the burning of coal, oil and/or gas. Africa produces about 5% of the world's coal with almost all of it being in South Africa. Africa's proven gas reserves make up 8% of the world total with more than two thirds of this gas in Nigeria. 16% of Africa's electricity is generated by hydro electric power and in some countries, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda and Ethiopia, it provides almost all the available electricity. Africa also has large uranium reserves, the element needed to generate nuclear power. Niger, Namibia and South Africa are currently the biggest sources of uranium on the continent.

Current Problems
The paradox of Africa's plentiful supply of energy reserves and the day-to-day struggle of people living without a reliable electricity supply or access to fuel is highlighted by Nigeria's oil industry. Part of the problem is that although 12% of the world's oil is drilled in Africa, less than a third of that is refined in Africa, making processed products much more expensive. Things are made worse by the fact that the few refineries in Nigeria don’t even run at full capacity.

Coal currently provides most of the electricity in Africa, but by 2030 gas will become more widely used. Most of Africa's oil is in four countries: Nigeria, Libya, Angola and Algeria. Based on the current levels of consumption, the world's currently known oil reserves will be used up within 40 years.

Only 7% of Africa's hydro electric power potential has been developed; compared to the 33% globally and 65% in Europe. African rivers with the largest potential are the Congo, the Nile and the Zambezi. The proposed Grand Inga project on the Congo could produce 40,000 megawatts, enough to provide electricity for most of Africa.

Another renewable source of energy with untapped potential is wind power. Small-scale projects are being tried out, where wind-turbines are built to provide small towns and villages, like M'muock in Cameroon, with electricity. In northern Europe, huge wind-farms account for 20% of Denmark's electricity and studies suggest the African countries with the most potential are Madagascar, South Africa, Kenya, and Ethiopia.

Africa's ethanol production makes up only 1% of the total global output. Bio-fuel is a renewable energy source, but concerns have been raised because the crops needed to make it might otherwise be used for food. Plans by the South African company Ethanol Africa to build a string of eight maize-fed ethanol plants at a cost of about one billion dollars have been put on hold because of the current global food crisis. Several other African countries have bio-fuel research projects underway, including Nigeria, which wants to use cassava, and Mozambique, which hopes to exploit sorghum and sugarcane.

South Africa is currently the only country on the continent that has nuclear reactors producing electricity for commercial purposes. South Africa's nuclear reactors generate enough electricity to satisfy the needs of about two million people. Egypt has plans to build a nuclear plant and Namibia, Niger and Nigeria, among other countries, are considering nuclear power. Nuclear power plants produce 16% of the world’s electricity but just 2% of Africa's electricity comes from nuclear power.

Solutions
The most convenient solution for Africa is to stick with oil. While not all of the refineries run at full capacity, that is a change that can be easily made, especially with more and more people living in homes that have opportunities for electricity. The downside with oil is that guerillas often fight over control of the oil and also the deformities that follow an oil spill. Nuclear energy is all an option for Africa because it already has reactors built in South Africa which could be expanded, thus increasing it’s availability. The most environmentally sound option is hydro electric power. It is a good option for Africa because of all the large rivers that flow through it. However, if the infrastructure isn’t there, it could be hard to harvest that energy.

Energy History
It wasn’t until the Oil Crisis in 1973 that any sort of strategy, within Europe, was created for energy policy. The European Council implemented a program the following year to get energy from as many sources as possible, so that no one group could monopolize the oil (1). The European Commission defined an energy policy for the European Union in order to reform the energy market. Their goal was to find ways to obtain inexpensive energy in order for its citizens to maintain a standard of living (2).

Current Problems
The current priorities of the European Union are to guarantee a secure common supply of energy while promoting the use of renewable energy, and research into energy technology. They are working on developing an internal energy market offering quality and low prices, reducing dependence on imported fuels, and lowering the region’s consumption of energy (1). Negotiating these common policies have been difficult, because each country has different energy priorities and uses a different energy mix based on their geographical location. Such difficulties as the reliability of Russian gas and Middle Eastern oil shipments illustrate concerns when it comes to quickly finding renewable energy alternatives (3). Declining resources means the European Union member states must act to effectively ensure continued supply, without interruption. I do not believe a common policy will be effective for all European countries, although one will be discussed later in the reading, but energy supply should remain under the control of each country as it pertains to their needs and resources.

Some European countries are relying heavily on imports and resources that either may not always be readily available or are harmful to the environment. Spain for instance is the most energy dependent country in Europe (4). It imports 80 percent of its energy needs. While it has shut down one of its power plants, nuclear power still provides one fifth of its electricity. The Ukraine relies on Russian and Turkmen gas. A dispute over gas pricing in 2006 caused gas supplies to be cut off; shipment resumed, but only after the Ukraine agreed to double its payments (5). Britain, a major exporter of oil and gas, has asked requested imports, due to their declining production of gasoline. France relies on its oil and gas imports from Norway, which accounts for 40 percent of their total energy consumption (5). Given the four examples, one can see the commitment to energy imports these countries have made, and the need to provide alternatives.

Solutions
As stated above, a common energy policy will not be completely effective; rather solutions should be left to each country based on its needs, resources, and location. The following identify various renewable energy potentials across Europe and then on a larger scale (6).
 * Austria’s forests and flowing rivers make it a major renewable energy resource for hydropower, biomass, and solar power.
 * Denmark has developed a major wind turbine industry that plans to have 50 percent of its country’s electricity come from wind power. This of course makes wind turbines a major renewable energy resource.
 * Finland’s natural resources offer cheap and readily available energy, making them a major resource for hydro and wind power.
 * France has been dubbed as being one of the early pioneers of hydroelectric power, but it also relies heavily on nuclear power, more than any other country. Its major energy resource is hydro and nuclear power.
 * Germany’s solar power development and wind power capacity make it one of the most innovative and successful renewable energy sectors. Their energy resources are solar and wind power.
 * Ireland’s investments in ocean energy has made them world leading in wave resources. Even though its major energy resource is hydropower, the country is still continuing its developments relying on wind power.
 * Italy receiving high levels of sunshine and being one of the largest producers of geothermal energy make it a major resource for solar power.
 * Spain’s wood burning industry is growing rapidly, making it an excellent resource for biomass energy. It is also the second largest producer of wind energy, which is also a favorable resource in Europe.
 * UK has made minor improvements in their wind energy capacity and their interest in tidal waves has been increased. Even though the UK may be a good resource for wind and wave energy, their consciousness about the impact of the wildlife has caused the issues to fall out of favor.

Wind energy is the leading renewable energy technology in Europe; this is why I believe relying heavily on this resource on a national level will benefit most of the European countries. Global wind-generating capabilities have made an eight fold increase from 1995 to 2003 (7). Natural gas has an annual growth rate of over 2 percent in the course of the same time, followed by oil at less than 2 percent, and coal at less than 1 percent. Nuclear generating capabilities expanded by 2 percent (7).

Electricity from the wind allows for the electrolyzation of water to produce hydrogen. This offers a system to store and transport wind energy. At night when the demand for electricity drops, the hydrogen generators can be turned on to build up reserves (7). Hydrogen is the fuel of choice for the fuel cell engines that automakers worldwide are working on and, if all goes well, cars with gasoline burning internal combustion engines can be converted to hydrogen (8).

Hydrogen can then be used as a gas substitute to fuel power plants. There will be both a backup for wind power and a substitute to natural gas, whenever there is a strain on gas resources (7). Given the recent unpredictability of natural gas prices, the stability of wind power prices is particularly appealing. With the possibility of a continuous rise, natural gas fired plants can be a backup for wind generated electricity. Europe's leadership has given it a major economic bonus: nine of the world's 10 leading wind turbine manufacturers are in three countries—Denmark, Germany, and Spain. These happen to be the three countries that have had the strongest and most stable market incentives (7).

Energy History
Rising energy demands due to rapid industrialization, combined with soaring oil prices and worrying levels of pollution have led many Asian countries to diversify their energy sources. The region is increasingly turning to renewable energy. Asia is the only region in which electricity generating capabilities and nuclear power has grown considerably (1). In East and South Asia there are over 111 nuclear power reactors in operation, 21 under construction and plans to build about a further 150 (1).

Current Problems
Electricity generating capacity and nuclear power have seen no considerable growth within North America and most of Western Europe, but many South and East Asia countries are already in the works of building new reactors to meet electricity demands (2). The demand for additional MW of electricity is to be filled by building nuclear plants. This will make the country less dependent on oil or coal, while providing the necessary power at ease. The question is why build nuclear reactors in an area plastered with volcanoes and prone to earthquakes, flooding and tsunamis. There must be better alternatives.

Asia is in the lead when it comes to hydropower and water resource development, with key plans under way in over 20 countries and strategies for new hydro abilities in more than 30 countries (3). The government wants to broaden electrification to all inner-city areas, and to 90% of the rural areas by 2010, and reach 100% electrification by 2020 (4). Electricity demand is estimated to increase by 15-16% by that time, with investments in the country’s power industry expected to reach $ 20 billion. Hydropower is essential to current development activities, with several tasks under way throughout the country and nearly 5000 MW of new capacity planned (5). Potential for small hydro in Vietnam is estimated at around 1000 MW, and this will play a major role in rural electrification (4). Many multipurpose systems will offer water supply, irrigation, and recreational benefits for the population (5). Nearly 700 million people in the Asia-Pacific region still have no means of getting safe drinking water, and the region suffers a enormously inconsistent level of water-related disasters (which caused about 62,000 deaths per year between 2001 and 2005) (4).

Solutions
It is expected that increasing hydropower installed capability will have an annual growth rate of 6.92% during the period 2009-13 to reach 434,388 MW by the end of 2013 (6). China is ahead in the hydropower division, and it will continue to have immense growth potential in the hydroelectric sector. Since the country is dependent on fossil fuels in order to meet the majority of its electricity needs, a change towards renewable energy is a must (7). As a result, China is making efforts to exploit its vast available hydropower potential. Three Gorges dam; the world's largest hydropower dam is under construction in the country. This will lead to significant hydroelectric capacity additions in the future period (7).

Resolutions
As a group, we feel that every country's infrastructure and way of harvesting energy is very diverse. With this diversity comes a need for each country and/ or region to come up with, not only, a local solution but also one that is environmentally friendly. And since each region is different and is dealing with their own political, economic, and social issues, one solution to one region's energy crisis may not work for the next.

For Antarctica, the Madrid Protocol and the Antarctica Treaty System has prevented the exploration and drilling of the continent's fossil fuel. Although wind and solar power is environmentally and economically friendly, technology and logistics will always play a part of the survival of Antarctica. In order to keep this pristine environment, pristine, wind and solar power are the only viable energy sources. Antarctica is a remote continent with a hostile climate and renewable energy is still expensive, but as the rest of the world adopts this renewable energy, in time wind and sun will slowly pay for its self.

Australia's energy crisis can be resolved very easily. This region already uses taxes to fund public works programs, so to build up the infrastructure to harvest the energy of the sun through solar panels placed in Australia's vast deserts would only require the rearranging of where tax dollars are spent. Another environmentally friendly solution the Australia's energy crisis could be solved through the harvesting of tidal power, since it is surrounded by water.

In Africa, there isn't much of an infrastructure built to harvest large amounts of energy, but also the demand for electricity isn't largely in demand as many countries on the continent are still developing. While they do use oil and nuclear power, they aren't environmentally friendly and these resources are often fought over due to the many civil wars in separate areas of Africa. The energy source with the most potential in Africa is hydro electric power, harvested through rivers like the Nile.

Europe's renewable energy consumption, as stated above, should be dealt with by country. However, Europe has shown tremendous growth as a leader in wind power. It will greatly refute the amount of polluting and costly fuels they have relied on for years. Not only will wind power help this region become less dependent on fossil fuels, but it will and has created about 60,000 jobs. In 2008, more wind power was installed in the European Union than any other power generating technology. This proves its effectiveness and consistency.

The Asia-Pacific region leads the global hydropower market with a total installed capacity of 295,764 MW by the end of 2008. The region has witnessed tremendous growth in the hydroelectric sector over the years, principally because of strong growth in the leading hydropower nations such as China, Japan, India, and Australia. These countries are cited as the most attractive destination for hydropower generation principally because of the abundant water resources. Among the leading nations, China and India has vast untapped hydro resources. This gives a positive indication of the growth of the region in the next few years.

South America is best served by maintaining their current trends of clean energy production. Solar paneling, hydro-electric power and bio- fuels would help the continent keep its fertile agricultural benefits as well as supply its people with comforts and trade option.

History of Energy
(1)“A history of world societies” Text books, http://www.ib-source.com/title_info.php?id=2212

(2)http://www.nrel.gov/wind/

(3)http://www.nrel.gov/wind/wind_project.html

(4)http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JLEED9000129000003000081000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes

(5)http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/wind-power/

(6)http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydro/

(7)http://www.free-flow-power.com/?gclid=CK2Y6KvSzpoCFYVM5Qod2UBP3Q

(8)http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/fission/fission.html

(9)Albert_Einstein

(10)	http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html

(11)[w:Marie_Curie|Marie_Curie]]

(12)	http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio.html

(13)[w:Enrico_Fermi|Enrico_Fermi]]

(14)	http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/fermi.html

(15)Henri_Becquerel

(16)	http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/becquerel-bio.html

(17)Nuclear_weapon

(18)	History_of_nuclear_weapons

(19)J._Robert_Oppenheimer

(20)http://ohst.berkeley.edu/oppenheimer/exhibit/

(21)Edward_Teller

(22)http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/eteller.pdf

(23)Hans_Bethe

(24)http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/bethe.html

(25)Stanislaw_Ulam

(26)http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/S_Ulam.shtml

North America
Scheer, Rich. Badin, Joseph. Blackwood, Marylee. Brinch, Jan. Nielson, Tara. "Grid 2030.” A National Vision for Electricity’s Second 100 Years. (2007): 1-30.

"Energy Facts." Solar Energy International, SEI. http://www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html.

“Biofuels Myths and Facts.” Good and Balanced Food and Fuel News. 2008. Friday, April 4, 2008. http://www.foodandfuelamerica.com/2008/04/biofuel-myths-vs-facts.html.

South America
"Helio." Power to the People, San Diego Union Tribune. June, 1, 2009. http://blog.heliopower.com.

"South America Solar Energy." Solar Energy. May, 21, 2009. http://www.gstriatum.com/solarenergy/2009/05/south-america-solar-energy/.

"Renewable Energy Powers Local Economies in South America." Partnership for a Better Life. America.gov. May, 31, 2007. http://blog.heliopower.com.

"Solar in Rural South America." Fight Poverty- Fight Climate Change. Solar Aid. Jan, 21, 2008. http://solar-aid.org/projectts.livelihood.solar-rural-south-america.html.

Europe
(1)http://www.civitas.org.uk/eufacts/FSENV/ENV3.htm

(2)http://ec.europa.eu/energy/index_en.htm

(3)http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28515983/

(4)http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080806/115846538.html

(5)http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3468

(6)http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/1999/sep/10/energy.business1

(7)http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update37.htm

(8)http://www.pca.state.mn.us/oea/p2/hydrogen.cfm

Asia
(1) http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf47.html

(2) http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1178902

(3) http://www.minorityrights.org/7670/programmes/mrg-asias-programmes.html

(4) http://iahs.info/conferences/2008Danang.pdf

(5) http://www.hydropower-dams.com/d/d_Asia08_PB.pdf

(6)http://www.worldofrenewables.com/index.php?do=viewarticle&artid=3009&title=asia-pacific-region-to-lead-the-global-hydro-power-market

(7) http://www.prlog.org/10224995-asia-pacific-hydro-power-market-analysis-and-forecasts-to-2013.html

http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update37.htm

http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Business%20Reports/BREP043.htm

http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/renewable-energy-resources/world/asia/index.shtml

http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-04/2006-04-03-voa10.cfm

http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/node/619

Australia and Africa
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5051022.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4457210.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4702386.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/sci_nat/06/global_energy/html/introduction.stm

http://www.solarserver.de/solarmagazin/artikeldezember2002-e.html R

http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/renewable/index.html

http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/index.html

http://macuv.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/FULLDAY_GLOB.PNG

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/2008/05/080501_energy_week_intro.shtml

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5125336.stm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4549313.stm

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/energy/op/nepadkarekezi

http://www.energyandcapital.com/articles/concentrating-solar+power-africa/491

Antarctica
(1)"Antarctica" 5/12/2009 

(2) "List of Antarctic territorial claims". Wikipedia,5/12/2009 

(3)"Antarctic Treaty System". Wikipedia,23 May 2009. 5/25/2009.

(4) "Antarctica;Fact sheet".Country Analysis, Sept/2000. 5/5/2009.

(5)"Antarctic bases turn to renewables-even solar".Reuters,1/20/2009. 5012/2009.                      

(6) "Blizzard winds to power Australian Antarctic Devision". Australian Antarctic Division,01/09/2008. 5/12/2009.

(7)" Antar bases turn to renewables".by Alister Doyle.Wed,21 January 2009.ABC Science-News in Science.5/12/2009. 

(8) "Living &working in Antarctica". Australian Antarctic Division.5/14/2009.5/16/2009. 

(9)"Wind to Power Research Base in Antarctica".RenewableEnergyWorld.com,January 30,2007. 5/16/2009. 

(10) "proven energy". Why proven Turbines? 01/2007. 5/16/2009.

(11)"International Polar Foundation" Corporate website.01/2007.5/16/2009. 

(12) wind energy ( http://www.thebioenegysite.com/news/2863/windpower.sets-sail-for-antarctica.

(13) "Antarctica Turning to Solar,Wind Power".By Ariel Schwartz.CleanTechnica.com. January 22,2009.5/12/2009. ( 

(14) "Ozone,High in the Sky". Antarctica:Journey to Frozen Continent,2002. 5/15/2009. 

More fun facts about Antarctica and renewable resources

"Antarctic Connection". News and information on Antarctica.