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Human Motivation

-What is motivation? (Johnson, 1997) - "Motivation as an inferred need, desire or impulse which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour" - a factor which explains the relations between stimuli and behaviour

-Self Determination Theory (SDT) Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development and health). Canadian Psycology, 49(3), 182-185.


 * Differentiates types of motivation, particularly focusing on autonomous and controlled motivation, and amotivation as predictors of performance and well-being outcomes.
 * Focus' not on varying strengths of needs in individuals, but rather the degree to which the need has been satisfied in the individual.
 * 2 general individual differences concepts: 1)causality orientations, and 2) life goals

-Intrinsic & extrinsic motivation

Biological Aspect of Sexual Motivation (Wallen, 2002) "Gonadal hormones primarily influence sexual motivation" as they regulate a mammals ability to copulate. Eliminating testosteronein adult humans and rhesus monkeys, decreases stimulation and therefore, sexual motivation. Human sexual behaviour is influenced by 3 main factors: hormonal state, social context, and cultural conventions. A female's sexual desire is influenced dramatically by ovarian hormones, however, it is suggested that cognition also plays a significant role in human sexual behaviour as the percieved pregnancy risk also influences specific sexual behaviours that individuals participate in.

(Sherwin, Gelfand, & Brender) Studies by these guys with menopausal women, and women who had undergone a hysterectomy, showed a clear increase in the intensity of sexual arousal and desire in participants due to exogenous androgen. However, testosterone did not appear to affect physiological responses or interpersonal aspects of sexual behaviour. The conclusion made by these researchers, therefore, was that androgen acted significantly on sexual motivation rather than sexual activity.

Sexual Motivation in Humans (Johnson, 1997) In lower animals, sexual motivation is seen as a 'drive' or, an internal force that "pushes" the animal to "engage in reproductive behaviour". Human sexual motivation is a much more complicated process involving several complex factors. Building on the definition of motivation by Johnson (1997) and applying it to human motivation, it can be said to be "an inferred, internal state influenced by several factors which determines engagement in sexual activity"

Methods in data collection for human sexual motivation & desire Most research is done via surveys, self-reports and volunteers due to the private, personal nature of the topic. However, this leaves room for many errors either via socially-desired responses, unintentional errors or miscommunication or misunderstanding about what an individual may think motivates their behaviour. Also, often participants in these studies are seen as 'ungeneralisable' to the population as they are often much more outgoing about sex and related topics. Most studies are correlational, not causal as they cannot "control for all potential variables"

2 Landmark studies Kinsey studies - "highly influencial due to the nature of the questions asked and the large number (several thousand) of subjects who were polled". Aimed to "identify, among other facts, what sexual behaviours people engaged in, what age they were when they began engaging in them, and how often they were currently engaging in them" Found physiology of both sexes to be quite similar, differing mainly in women's lesser sexual capacity. Caused uproar in the conservative times (1950s). Kinsey studies disregarded effects of culture and learning on the results of their subject's behaviours.

Masters & Johnson - involved "actual physiological measurement of sexual responses in male and female volunteers" Proved the similarity between both sexes and their sexual response to intercourse, contradictory to what was originally thought. "Their results would indicate that differential subjective responses to sexual intercourse between the sexes were indeed more likely associated with culture and learning"

Whilst now the data from both studies is considered outdated and not generalisable (white, middle class volunteers), provided an important backdrop for recent research and studies.

One in United States and one in America - used non-volunteers and extensive interviews. "These studies were designed to include a representative sample and also allow participants to give in-depth, and anonymous answers. Laumann and his associates found a more conservative pattern of sexual behaviour than did the Kinsey studies indicating that volunteers are not, in fact, representative of the general population."

Gender differences in motivation for engaging in sexual activity.
 * Males
 * Females
 * Homosexual/Heterosexual. Is there any difference?

Motivation is a factor which explains the relations between stimuli and behaviour; motivation is inferred need, desire or impulse which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Coon, 1997). “Human motivation to engage in sexual behaviour is due to a complex relationship among several factors” Klusmann, Dietrich. (2002). Sexual motivation and the duration of partnership. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 31(3), 275-287. •	Surveyed 1865 German students aged 19-32 who reported to be heterosexual and in a steady relationship. Based on cross-sectional data meaning a longitudinal explanation is unsafe •	Main results: 1.	“sexual activity and sexual satisfaction decline in women and men as the duration of the partnership increases” 2.	“sexual desire only declines in women” 3.	“desire for tenderness declines in men and rises in women” •	Klusmann suggest the reason for such findings was due to individual differences in mating strategies •	Suggested evolutionary explanation for results: 1.	The attachment and bond felt between individuals in a partnership developed from a non-sexual parent-child tie. 2.	Therefore, once initial infatuation period has passed between a couple, their relationship is seen to become less sexual. 3.	However, evolutionary history suggests that a male’s sexual desire should stay at a higher level due to sperm/reproductive competition 4.	In comparison, female sexual desire is “assumed to reflect an adaptive function – to boost attachment and secure the bond” •	As the term of the relationship increased, sexual motivation for women decreased, but not for men. •	This paper looks at 3 main factors in order to explain results: 1.	Results from other surveys 2.	Social psychology 3.	Theories about evolutionary origins of gender differences in sexual motivation •	“Sexual behaviour often requires a compromise between the different proclivities of women and men (Symons, 1979), but sexual desire and other emotions, which are antecedent or contingent to sexual behaviour are not restricted in this way” •	“Thus, gender differences are expected mainly to appear in the frequency of emotions, not behaviours” •	HOW DOES EMOTION AND SATISFACTION CONTRIBUTE TO MOTIVATION? NB: This article looks into emotion! •	Look at EVOLUTIONARY THEORY •	Sexual desire vs sexual motivation??? •	Does different types of sexual activity contribute to motivation to engage?? •	Active & passive stimulation •	“The decline of sexual desire in women was strongly revealed in the assessment of sexual desire relative to the partner and in an avowed lack of sexual desire... few existing differences point to less female motivation and pleasure in longer relationships, in comparison to shorter ones” •	“Partners in a couple often differ in their commitment. One of them may exceed the other in 1.	Wishing the partner to endure 2.	Wanting to possess the partner for herself or himself 3.	Wanting to spend much time with the partner 4.	Wanting to talk to the partner 5.	Being jealous, and 6.	Being in love •	Stated negatively, 1.	Fear of intimacy may be elicited more easily in one of the partners 2.	He or she may tend to withdraw emotionally” •	“imbalance of commitment related to sexual desire...” 1.